THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 
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W75b 

Ho.  2.91- 310 


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IS  SHE  WORTH  FEEDING  WELD? 


Bread  and  milk  are  an  old  combination,  but  we  are  just  beginning  to  understand  the 
part  whole  milk  plays  in  the  combination. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


7 s fi"  \ 

Bulletin  29  V 


June,  1918 


Milk  Necessary  for  the 
Welfare 

— * I 

2)3  1 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


Tlic  increased  price  of  milk  lead.,  people  into  making  the  mistake 
of  buying  less  milk.  Milk  is  the  one  food  which  nothing  else’  can  re- 
place. Only  those  people  who  are  guided  by  long  experience  or  reli- 
gious rites  will  maintain  the  quantity  formerly  purchased.  Page  s 2-4. 

Milk  is  a perfect  food.  It  contains  all  the  factors  of  nutrition  in 
adequate  proportions  and  is  an  indispensable  supplement  to  other 
food  materials  during  growth.  Page  4. 

Energy  and  protein  are  not  the  only  factors  in  an  adequate  diet- 
Animals  cannot  be  reared  on  grains  alone  or  grains  supplemented  with 
grain  protein  concentrates.  Pellagra  is  one  result  of  an  improperly 
balanced  diet.  Pages  5-6. 

Milk  supplies  adequate  mineral  material  for  rapid  growth.  Grains 
when  used  alone  produce  nutritive  failure,  but  are  changed  to  valu- 
able products  when  supplemented  with  milk.  Pages  7-9. 

Milk  furnishes  the  very  best  of  proteins.  Proteins  are  not  all  aldce 
in  promoting  growth.  Those  of  the  grains  are  poor  in  quality,  but 
v/hen  supplemented  with  milk  or  whey  become  very  efficient. 

Pages  10-11. 

Milk  supplies  an  abundance  of  necessary  vitamines.  Butter-fat  is 
rich  in  the  fat  soluble  vitamine,  while  plant  oils  contain  practically 
none.  The  vitamines  of  cream  are  not  injured  by  pasteurization.  A 
deficiency  of  fat  soluble  vitamine  may  cause  eye  diseases.  Pages  12-14. 

Oleomargarine  is  not  a complete  substitute  for  butter.  While  it  is 
a source  of  energy  ind  the  best  grades  contain  some  fat  soluble  vit- 
amine even  these  do  not  contain  as  much  as  natural  butter. 

Pages  16-17. 

Milk  is  rich  in  the  water  soluble  vitamine.  An  absence  of  this  type 
of  vitamine  is  the  cause  of  beri  beri,  a disease  formerly  prevalent  in 
rhe  Orient  where  people  lived  too  exclusively  on  polished  rice  and 
fish.  Pages  17-19. 

M:lk  is  a necessity  in  the  diet  of  growing  children.  In  the  absence 
of  milk  eggs  are  the  only  comparable  substitute.  The  public  must 
learn  to  appreciate,  even  with  advancing  prices,  the  importance  of  the 
dairy  industry  to  the  nation’s  welfare.  Page  20. 


£30  ~ | 

b 

no.  &U310 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare 

E.  B.  Hart  and  H.  Steenbock 

The  nation  is  passing  through  a food  crisis.  Certain  foods 
are  scarce;  many  are  very  high  in  price;  others  can  scarcely  be 
had  at  any  cost. 

Most  housewives  are  trying  hard  to  find  new  ways  of  keeping 
down  the  cost  of  food  for  their  families.  In  doing  so  they  are 
trying  many  new  foods  and  combinations.  It  is,  then,  of  great 
importance  that  at  this  time  the  known  facts  concerning  the 
nutritive  values  of  foods  be  generally  understood  in  order  that 
the  people,  and  particularly  young  children  and  growing  boys 
and  girls,  may  not  suffer  from  improper  selection  of  foods. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  we  save  food  and  avoid  its  waste,  but 
it  is  probable  that  in  many  cases  high  prices  may  lead  us  to  stint 
ourselves  on  certain  essential  foods.  This  condition  is  particu- 
larly true  in  reference  to  milk. 

In  the  fall  of  1917,  even  though  the  price  of  milk  had  not  gone 
up  so  much  as  the  prices  of  many  other  articles  of  food,  less  was 
used  in  Chicago,  New  York  and  other  of  our  cities.  In  New 
York  the  Jewish  mothers,  who  by  long  experience  or  tradition 
had  learned  the  true  value  of  this  product  for  children,  were 
the  only  class  which  bought  and  used  the  normal  amount  of  milk 
in  spite  of  its  increased  cost. 

Shoes  have  also  increased  in  price,  but  we  purchase  them  as 
a necessity,  grumbling  though  we  may,  but  realizing  that  we  can- 
not be  without  them.  The  same  is  true  of  other  things  that  are 
classed  as  necessities.  Why  should  we  not  think  in  the  same 
way  of  milk  and  dairy  products,  so  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
vigorous,  healthy  children? 

No  nation,  so  far  as  we  know,  has  ever  reached  or  maintained 
high  virility  and  leadership  that  has  not  had  in  its  diet  animal 
products  of  some  kind.  In  India,  Japan,  China  and  other  parts 
of  the  far  East  are  to  be  found  peoples  who  are  practically  vege- 


509862 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulle  291 


tarians.  In  no  case  are  they  as  vigorou*  progressive  as  they 
should  be.  That  they  are  able  to  live  wi  : f dairy  products 

is  undoubtedly  to  be  explained  by  their  consumption  of  the 
actively  growing  parts  of  plants,  especially  the  leaves. 

Milk  a Perfect  Food 

Whole  milk  is  a perfect  food  for  the  young.  Fed  by  itself  it 
will  efficiently  support  growth.  There  are  but  few  single  arti- 
cles of  food  that  will  do  this.  Eggs  will  do  it,  but  cornmeal  or 
oatmeal,  for  example,  will  not. 

Animal  life,  after  thousands  of  years  of  evolution  and  many 
trials  and  probable  failures,  finally  produced  in  milk  a food  of 
superior  quality.  It,  like  the  egg,  has  been  developed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  growing  young.  Aii  egg  contains  a potential 
life.  The  mother  hen  has  scratched  and  eaten  from  a variety 
of  sources,  only  finally  to  put  into  the  egg  all  the  food  essentials 
needed  by  the  unfolding  chick. 

Similarly  the  dairy  cow,  from  her  coarse  and  bulky  feed  of 
grain  and  roughage,  takes  the  essentials,  changing  and  improv- 
ing some  of  them  for  the  production  of  a better  or  more  perfect 
food  than  that  which  she  has  eaten.  Milk,  like  the  egg,  con- 
tains all  the  food  needs  of  the  growing  young. 

But  in  what  respect  is  milk  superior  to  other  articles  of  food  ? 
Why  is  it  especially  important  in  the  nutrition  of  all  young, — 
whether  the  human  baby  (deprived  of  its  natural  food),  the 
farm  calf  or  the  farm  pig? 

Five  Things  Necessary  in  Diet 

Five  factors  are  necessary  in  the  diet  for  adequate  nourish- 
ment. These  are  a sufficient  amount  of  energy  or  fuel  food,  an 
adequate  supply  of  good  proteins,  sufficient  suitable  mineral 
matter,  and  two  chemical  substances  of  unknown  character  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  materials  now  called  vitamines.  Milk  is 
one  of  the  few  foods  which  contains  these  essential  constituents 
in  suitable  proportions.  In  contrast,  a food  like  cornmeal  may 
contain  all  the  normal  factors  of  nutrition,  but  some  are  either 
too  low  in  quantity  or  too  poor  in  character  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  growing  child.  Milk  contains  them  in  proportions  sufficient 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare 


5 

rr 

for  rapid  growth  and  that  is  why  it  is  a superior  food ; in  fact, 
we  use  milk  today  as  the  yard  stick  of  nutritive  efficiency.  In 
experimental  work  its  mineral  content  is  generally  taken  as  a 
standard  of  excellence. 

Importance  op  Energy 

In  the  past  and  even  at  the  present  time,  in  discussing  the 
nutritive  value  of  foods  emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  their 
energy  and  protein  content.  ‘ ‘ How  many  calories  or  heat  units 
can  be  purchased  for  ten  cents?”  This  side  of  nutrition  is  ex- 


axoTV  sxivao  xo  Mono  o,l  aa'iiVti— t 'om 

These  pigs  received  a ration  of  eornmeal  and  gluten  feed,  a protein  concentrate  from 
the  corn  grain.  Growth  ceased  after  a few  weeks  on  such  a diet.  These  pigs  failed  to 
grow  beyond  60  pounds  because  of  poor  mineral  content  and  poor  quality  of  the  pro- 
teins of  the  ration. 

tremely  important,  for  the  main  use  of  food  by  the  adult  is  as 
a source  of  energy  and  he  should  know  its  cheapest  sources. 
But  it  so  happens  that  in  such  discussions  of  food  values  little  or 
no  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  other  factors  of  nutrition  so  im- 
portant in  the  growth  period  of  children.  The  cheapest  sources 
of  energy  in  foods  are  our  common  grains,  such  as  wheat,  corn, 
oatmeal,  and  rice,  and  these  should  constitute  50  to  60  per  cent 
of  the  food  we  eat;  but  it  must  be  recognized  by  the  American 
public  that  little  or  no  growth  will  take  place  with  seeds  or  seed 
products  as  the  sole  source  of  nutritive  elements.  This  fact  is 
well  illustrated  in  Figure  1.  The  mother  who  relies  upon  en- 
ergy and  upon  protein  charts  as  her  sole  guide  in  feeding  her 
family  and  who  must  feed  her  husband  and  children  as  cheaply 
as  possible,  will  be  inclined  to  set  before  her  family  the  disb.es 


G 


Wisconsin  Bull*.  , 91 


prepared  from  cornmeal,  wheat  flour,  1 oats,  rice,  peas  and 
beans.  An  excessive  use  of  these,  without  properly  supplement- 
ing them  with  materials  containing  an  abundance  of  the  other 
factors  needed  for  growth,  will  lead  to  nutritional  disturbances. 
The  deficiencies  in  these  seeds  or  seed  products  lie  in  their  poor 
protein  content,  in  their  poor  mineral  content,  and  in  their  low 
supply  of  a certain  class  of  vitamines. 

At  the  present  time,  in  the  southern  part  of  our  country,  a 
disease  known  as  pellagra  is  found,  mainly  among  the  poor 
whites  and  negro  mill  hands.  Its  symptoms  are  soreness  of 
the  mouth,  severe  diarrhea,  and  an  appearance  of  the  skin 
closely  resembling  a severe  burn.  The  cause  of  this  disease, 
according  to  Goldberger  of  the  United  States  Public  Health 
Service,  is  a faulty  diet.  He  was  able  to  cause  such  a disease 
in  normal  individuals  by  feeding  them  a diet  made  up  of  corn- 
meal,  wheat  flour,  rice,  starch,  sugar,  syrup,  pork  fat,  cabbage, 
collards,  turnip  greens,  coffee,  and  sweet  potatoes.  It  has  been 
calculated  that  but  4 per  cent  of  the  energy  of  this  ration  came 
from  leafy  vegetables  and  sweet  potatoes.  Had  this  proportion 
been  increased  to  15  or  20  per  cent  of  the  diet  probably  this 
diseased  condition  would  not  have  occurred;  for  although  the 
rate  of  growth  with  a rapidly  growing  species  cannot  be  met  by 
such  combinations  alone  it  is  possible  to  combine  seeds  and  the 
leafy  portion  of  plants  in  such  a way  as  to  supply  the  needs  for 
growth. 

It  is  just  in  such  instances,  that  the  supplementing  power  of 
milk  comes  in.  We  have  demonstrated  in  numerous  experi- 
ments the  failure  of  animals  when  fed  seeds  only;  but  when 
these  seeds  are  supplemented  with  milk,  failure  is  turned  into 
success  and  there  is  a change  from  suspended  growth  to  rapid 
growth.  Even  the  sugar  of  milk,  ordinarily  thought  to  be  of 
no  other  value  than  as  a source  of  energy,  has  special  physio- 
logical properties.  It  is  this  sugar,  in  distinction  from  other 
sugars,  that  is  important  in  holding  in  check  putrefaction  in  the 
large  intestine.  This  is  of  particular  importance  in  the  case 
of  the  infant  or  young  child  who  may  be  very  sensitive  to  the 
injurious  action  of  abnormal  substances  produced  in  the  intesti- 
nal tract.  Very  recently  it  has  been  shown  by  Mr.  Pitz  of 
this  Station,  that  scurvy,  a very  old  disease,  may  be  caused  by 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare 


7 


FTG.  3.- now  MINERALS  SUPPLEMENT  GRAINS 

The  grains  are  all  deficient  in  the  mineral  matter  needed  for  successful  growth.  This 
pig,  eventually  reaching  450  pounds  in  weight,  received  a ration  of  cornmeal,  gluten 
feed,  common  salt,  potassium  phosphate,  and  calcium  lactate.  It  remained  sound  and 
healthy  although  it  did  not  grow  at  the  normal  rate,  due  to  poor  proteins. 

gated.  These  facts  were  known  many  years  ago  by  Henry,  a 
pioneer  in  American  feeding  problems.  Its  poor  proteins  also 
aid  to  make  the  cornmeal  diet  a poor  one,  bnt  its  poor  mineral 
content  is  its  principal  defect.  Suppose  we  make  mineral  addi- 
tions to  the  cornmeal-gluten  feed  ration  in  such  proportions  as 
to  make  the  total  mineral  content  similar  to  that  of  milk, — then 
what  happens?  We  get  growth  at  a fair  rate.  It  will  not  be  a 
maximum  rate  because  the  corn  grain  proteins  are  too  poor  in 
quality.  Figure  2 beautifully  illustrates  such  a result. 

What  applies  to  these  animals  applies  equally  well  to  children. 
For  does  any  one  question  the  fact  that  most  of  our  medical 


retaining  an  undue  amount  of  fecal  matter  accompanied  by 
putrefaction  in  the  intestines ; this  has  been  prevented  in  guinea 
pigs  by  a liberal  use  of  milk  sugar. 


Importance  of  Mineral  Materials 


The  failure  of  animals  to  grow  on  cornmeal  alone,  or  corn- 
meal supplemented  with  a protein  concentrate  like  gluten  feed, 
is  primarily,  but  not  solely,  due  to  its  low  and  poor  mineral  con- 
tent. This  statement  is  true  for  any  of  the  seeds  so  far  investi- 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulleti 


2 


knowledge  has  been  obtained  from  experm  with  animals? 
Most  of  the  principles  have  first  been  established  by  carefully 
controlled  experiments  on  animals.  Illustrations  that  we  sub- 
mit as  evidence  for  the  various  factors  concerned  in  nutrition 
could  not  have  been  obtained  on  a human  baby.  The  princi- 
ples brought  out  and  their  importance  are  the  same  in  charac- 
ter if  not  in  degree. 

If. the  cornmeal  or  any  other  grain  mixture  is  supplemented 
with  whole  or  skimmed  milk,  as  has  been  demonstrated  so  abund- 
antly in  practice,  growth  at  a rapid  rate  becomes  possible.  (See 


FIG.  3.— MILK  SUPPLEMENTS  THE  GRAINS 

Pigs  of  the  same  age  and  started  at  the  same  time.  The  animal  on  the  right  (100  , 
pounds)  received  a ration  of  cornmeal,  oats,  middlings,  and  oil  meal.  Growth  will 
c ase  sooner  or  later  with  restriction  to  such  a ration.  The  animal  on  the  left  (200 
pounds)  received  the  same  ration  as  the  other,  but  supplemented  with  1 per  cent  of  the 
dry  matter  of  the  ration  as  milk  solids.  Such  results  need  no  further  comment. 


figures  3 and  4.)  The  reason. for  this  lies  in  the  improvement 
in  the  mineral  content  of  the  mixture  and  the  introduction  o'f 
better  proteins  from  the  milk.  These  matters  are  known  in  < suc- 
cessful feeding  practice,  but  only  lately  have  we  understood 
them.  Once  understanding  comes,  and  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples are  laid  bare,  then  teaching  such  principles  can  be  made 
universal.  The  illustration  in  Figure  3 shows  the  effect  of  a 
grain  diet  alone  and  the  grain  diet  supplemented  with  but  one 
per  cent  of  skimmilk;  that  is,  one  per  cent  of  the  solids  of  the 
grain  ration  was  supplied  as  skimmed  milk  solids.  Milk  with 
its  abundance  of  calcium  and  phosphorus,  the  main  inorganic 
constituents  of  bone,  makes  possible  a rapid  skeleton  develop- 
ment. These  two  elements  are  laid  down  in  the  bone  tissue  as 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare  9 

calcium  phosphate  and  make  it  rigid  and  strong.  It  is  an  in- 
teresting fact  that  the  protein,  calcium  and  phosphorus  con- 
tent of  milk  secreted  by  different  species  or  kinds  of  animals  are 
in  concentrations  related  to  the  rates  of  growth  of  the  young 
of  each  species.  A species  whose  young  double  their  weight  in 
40  days  will  secrete  a milk  richer  in  protein  and  mineral  mat- 
ter than  a species  whose  young  double  their  weight  in  80  days. 
Such  facts  as  those  cannot  fail  to  show  the  special  relation  milk 
holds  to  the  development  of  children  and  animals. 


FiG.  4.— ANOTHER  GRAIN  AND  GRAIN-MILK  EFFECT 

The  mother  of  the  growing  boy  or  girl  should  appreciate  this  experiment.  These  pigs 
were  of  the  same  age  and  started  on  the  rations  at  the  same  time.  The  animal  on  the 
left  (55  pounds)  received  a ration  of  95.5  parts  of  wheat  meal  and  2.5  parts  of  wheat 
gluten.  The  latter  is  a protein  concentrate  from  the  wheat  grain.  The  animal  on  the 
right  (165  pounds)  received  a ration  of  wheat  meal  and  skimmilk  fed  in  approximately 
the  proportions  of  1:1.  It  weighed  165  pounds  when  the  other  pig  weighed  but  55 
pounds. 

Importance  of  Proteins  . 

We  are  learning  that  the  individual  members  of  this  important 
class  of  food  substances  differ  among  themselves  in  nutritive 
value.  A pound  of  protein  from  cornmeal  or  wheat  flour  is  not 
equal  to  a pound  of  protein  from  milk  or  cheddar  cheese  or  cot- 
tage cheese  or  any  kind  of  cheese  in  meeting  growth  needs. 
This  is  probably  the  most  important  fact  in  a practical  sense 
that  farmers  and  the  American  public  will  have  to  recognize  in 
the  future.  The  building  units  from  the  proteins  of  our  cereal 
grains  are  not  so  well  suited  as  those  from  milk  for  rapid  build- 
ing of  the  protein  structure  of  animals.  It  is  particularly  in  this 
direction  that  nature  did  so  well  when  through  the  mammary 
gland  she  constructed  from  the  blood  stream  and  thus  indirectly 
from  certain  parts  of  poor  proteins  of  the  food,  the  proteins 
for  the  nutrition  of  the  young. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  291 


If  the  cereal  grain  proteins  are  used  as  the  sole  source  of  pro- 
tein for  the  growing  animal  they  will  show  an  efficiency  of  less 
than  30  per  cent,  while  the  proteins  from  milk  will  reach  an 
efficiency  of  65  per  cent.  In  other  words,  while  only  30  per  cent 
of  a pound  of  proteins  from  the  corn  kernel  would  be  stored 
away,  65  per  cent  of  a pound  from  milk  would  be  stored  by  the 
growing  animal.  In  storing  the  30  per  cent  of  proteins  from  the 
cereal  grains  70  per  cent  will  be  wasted,  because  it  does  not  fit 
well  into  the  growing  structure  of  the  young;  but  only  35  per 
cent  'of  the  milk  proteins  will  be  wasted. 

However,  when  corn  and  milk  are  used  together  what  a won- 
derful relation  is  revealed.  The  milk  proteins  now  fit  into  the 
cereal  proteins  in  such  a way  that  60  to  65  per  cent  of  the  total 
mixture  is  retained.  This  is  real  conservation.  The  poor  pro- 
teins of  corn  have  been  brought  to  a higher  utilization  and  in- 
stead of  70  per  cent  being  wasted  when  fed  alone  to  a young 
animal,  but  half  that  amount  is  wasted. 

It  does  not  take  much  imagination  to  translate  this  process 
to  the  growing  boy  and  girl.  With  their  cereal  breakfast  food 
covered  with  whole  milk  they  are  using  the  proteins  of  the  milk 
and  at  the  same  time  are  making  better  use  of  the  proteins  of 
the  breakfast  food.  They  are  meeting  their  growth  needs  and 
are  developing  into  the  strong  men  and  women  the  nation  needs. 

Even  the  small  amount  of  proteins  in  whey  supplements  the 
cereal  grains  in  a most  effective  way.  We  have  conducted  ex- 
periments with  growing  pigs  where  this  cheese  making  by-prod- 
uct has  been  used  at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  daily,  supple- 
mented with  cornmeal  and  gluten  feed.  Although  when  the 
grain  mixture  was  used  alone  less  than  30  per  cent  of  the  pro- 
teins? was  kept,  47  per  cent  of  the  proteins  of  the  whey-gluten 
feed-cornmeal  mixture  was  saved;  yet  the  whey  proteins  con- 
stituted but  16  per  cent  of  the  entire  protein  mixture.  What  a 
saving  of  the  cereal  grain  proteins  this  would  mean  when  prop- 
erly applied.  Yet  in  the  summer  of  1917  we  found  the  pro- 
prietor of  a cheese  factory  in  the  northern  part  of  Wisconsin 
dumping  the  whey  >ito  the  wood  lot.  This  should  all  have 
been  saved  and  returned  to  the  farm,  and  fed  to  the  stock. 

A pound  of  cottage  cheese  contains  as  much  protein  as  a 
pound  of  meat  and  the  proteins  of  this  product  are  as  good  as 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation  *s  Welfare  li 

those  of  meat;  true,  the  meat  probably  contains  some  stomach 
and  intestine  stimulating  materials  of  considerable  value,  but 
surely  the  splendid  food,  cottage  cheese,  as  well  as  other  varieties 
of  cheese  should  be  used  to  spare  some  of  the  meat  now  so  exces- 
sively used  by  the  American  public.  Figure  5 illustrates  these 
variations  in  the  nutritive  value  of  proteins  and  the  remark- 
able supplementing  power  of  milk  and  whey  in  improving  the 
efficiency  of  cereal  grain  proteins. 


a 

in 

z 60 

2 

“ 70 

(E 

5 60 

111 

g 50 

o. 

fe  40 

2 30 

z 

3 

? 20 

fL 

10 
0 

FIG.  5 —DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  NUTRITIVE  EFFICIENCY  OF  PROTEINS 

This  chart  shows  the  number  of  pounds  of  protein  which  a pig  can  retain  for  growth 
from  each  100  pounds  of  protein  consumed,  when  the  proteins  are  derived  from  the 
different  sources  indicated. 

Such  facts  as  these  are  very  significant  and  make  it  clear  why 
milk  in  any  form,  whole,  skimmed,  or  as  butter  milk,  or  in  the 
manufactured  products,  becomes  a superior  article  in  the  ration 
of  growing  animals  or  for  human  consumption.  The  mother 
who  keeps  whole  milk  in  the  diet  of  the  growing  boy  or  girl, 
or  the  milk  products  manufacturer  who  makes  clean,  wholesome 
^kimmilk,  buttermilk,  or  cheese  available  for  human  consumption 
will  aid  measurably  in  making  stronger  boys  and  girls  and  help 
ward  off  the  dangers  of  under  nutrition  among  the  children  of 
the  cities. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  291 


The  consuming  public  must  clearly  appreciate  these  facts  even 
if  the  prices  of  dairy  products  advance.  No  industry  can  be 
maintained  permanently  that  is  not  profitable  and  that  operates 
at  a financial  loss.  It  would  be  a calamity  to  coming  generations 
should  a situation  develop  in  this  country  that  would  lower  the 
production  of  dairy  products  because  of  decreased  consumption. 
Occasionally  a child  cannot  tolerate  milk  or  milk  products  in 
any  form ; but  such  cases  are  rare.  When  they  occur  the  only 
real  substitute  will  be  found  in  eggs.  Meats  are  less  efficient 
because  of  their  poorer  mineral  and  vitamine  content.  We  have 
known  weak,  growing  children  made  strong  by  the  use  of  whole 
milk  and  eggs;  always  with  improved  nutrition  there  comes  a 
greater  resistance  to  disease. 

Importance  of  Vitamines — The  Fat  Soluble  Type 

Yitamines  are  as  yet  unidentified  chemical  substances  in  foods, 
and  are  absolutely  necessary  for  growth  and  reproduction.  With- 
out them  no  growth  will  take  place.  They  are  abundant  in 
milk  and  eggs  and  in  the  leafy  portion  of  plants.  One  class 
which  can  be  dissolved  in  water  is  abundant  in  seeds,  while  an- 
other class,  dissolved  in  fat,  is  apparently  not  so  abundant  in 
seeds.  Both  classes  are  abundant  in  whole  milk.  The  discovery 
of  the  vitamines  in  milk  was  first  made  by  Dr.  F.  G.  Hopkins 
of  Cambridge,  England.  They  were  separated  into  two  classes 
by  McCollum.  The  fat  soluble  vitamine  of  butter  was  recog- 
nized independently  and  at  the  same  time  by  Osborne  and  Men- 
del of  Yale  and  by  McCollum  of  this  station. 

A number  of  years  ago  chemists,  and  first  among  them,  Hop- 
kins, tried  to  get  young  animals  to  grow  on  rations  which  were 
made  up  of  mixtures  of  carefully  purified  proteins,  carbohy- 
drates, fats  and  salt  mixtures  (mineral  materials)  from  the 
chemical  laboratory.  These  salt  mixtures  must  contain  all  the 
elements  which  are  left  as  ash  when  the  body  of  the  animal  is 
burned  and  include  iron,  iodine,  potassium,  sodium,  calcium, 
magnesium,  sulphur,  phosphorus  and  chlorine.  When  such  ra- 
tions were  fed,  the  animals  not  only  did  not  grow,  but  they  did 
not  live  any  length  of  time,  not  over  two  months.  The  essen- 
tial thing  to  remember  about  these  experiments  is  that  the  foods 
used  were  highly  purified. 

If  we  take  such  a mixture  of  food  stuffs  which  do  not  allow 
an  animal  to  grow  and  stir  into  it  a small  quantity  of  egg  yolk, 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare 


13 


say  for  a pound  of  the  ration  an  ounce  of  egg  yolk,  growth  can 
be  induced.  The  same  result  would  be  obtained  if  we  had  put 
in  an  ounce  of  evaporated  milk  instead  of  the  egg  yolk.  Sup- 
pose next  that  we  take  all  the  fat  out  of  this  satisfactory  ration 
by  extracting  it  with  something  that  dissolves  fats.  It  will  be 
found  that  though  the  ration  will  be  able  to  maintain  young 
rats  without  any  increase  in  weight  for  about  a month,  it  will 
no  longer  be  able  to 'induce  growth.  Only  on  restoring  the  ex- 
tracted fats  to  the  ration  will  growth  be  made.  A similar  re- 
sult could  have  been  obtained  by  adding  butterfat  or  fats  ob- 


FTG.  6.— PLANT  OILS'  DEFICIENT  IN  FAT  SOLUBLE  VITAMINE 

The  rat  on  the  left  received  5 per  cent  of  cottonseed  oil  and  the  one  on  the  right  1.5 
per  cent  of  butterfat  instead  of  cottonseed  oil:  otherwise  the  rations  were  alike  and  the 
rats  were  of  the  same  age.  The  plant  oils  lack  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  without  which 
growth  cannot  proceed;  yet  this  vitamine  is  contained  abundantly  in  whole  milk,  eggs, 
and  the  leafy  portion  of  plants. 

tained  from  certain  animal  organs ; but  other  fats  such  as  lard, 
almond  oil  and  cottonseed  oil  would  not  have  brought  about  the 
same  result. 

These  facts  might  well  cause  us  to  stop  and  think.  Because 
of  the  fact  that  some  fats  naturally  contain  substances  necessary 
for  growth  while  other  fats  do  not  contain  such  substances,  there 
has  arisen  the  necessity  of  speaking  of  the  presence  or  absence 
of  a fat  soluble  vitamine.  This  vitamine  is  closely,  though  not 
exclusively,  associated  with  fats.  It  is  also  found  in  seeds  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  the  leafy  portion  of  plants  to  a considerable 
extent  also  contains  this  substance.  Milk,  eggs,  and  alfalfa  leaves 
are  a very  good  source  of  this  unknown  constituent,  although 
there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  forage  plants  in  general 
are  a better  source  of  this  class  of  vitamines  than  the  grains. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  291 


The  fact  that  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  of  milk  is  concentrated 
in  the  fat  of  this  product  might  lead  to  the  inference  that  skim- 
milk  would  be  inadequately  provided  with  this  substance.  It  is 
evident,  however,  that  a portion  of  the  vitamine  contained  in 
the  milk  fats  dissolves  in  the  whey  of  milk  and  consequently  is 
present  even  in  skimmilk,  although  perhaps  not  as  abundantly 
as  we  should  wish. 

Of  late  there  has  appeared  in  the  advertising  literature  of 
manufacturers  of  milk-product  substitutes  the  statement  that 
the  vitamines  of  milk  are  destroyed  by  pasteurization.  This 


FIG.  7.— HOW  FAT  SOLUBLE  VITAMINE  EFFECTS  GROWTH 


These  two  rats  ate  the  same  food  mixture,  except  that  the  one  on  the  right  received 
a small  amount  of  butterfat  and  the  one  on  the  left  in  place  of  the  butterfat  an 
allowance  of  sunflower  seed  oil.  They  were  the  same  age.  Apparently  there  is  no  oil 
of  plant  origin  which  will  take  the  place  of  butterfat,  egg  fat  or  certain  other  fats  of 
animal  origin.  The  leaves  of  plants  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  and  probably  other  leafy 
plants  supply  the  ingredient  which  gives  butterfat  its  peculiar  growth-promoting  prop- 
erty. The  vitamine  of  butterfat  is  also  found  in  seeds,  but  probably  is  not  as  abun- 
dant there  as  in  the  leafy  part  of  the  plant. 


statement  is  absolutely  false.  In  our  experiments  in  the  study 
of  the  vitamines,  butterfat  is  heated  higher  than  is  required  for 
pasteurization  and  for  much  longer  periods  of  time  without  de- 
stroying this  substance. 

Further,  there  is  in  these  times  of  food  scarcity  a tendency  to 
use  plant  oils  as  substitutes  for  butterfat,  even  claiming  for  them 
a value  equal  to  that  of  butterfat.  No  plant  oils  so  far  investi- 
gated, and  those  include  cottonseed  oil,  almond  oil,  peanut  oil, 
cocoanut  oil,  and  sunflower  seed  oil,  contain  the  fat  soluble  vita- 
amine  in  appreciable  quantities.  It  is  false  to  claim  these  as 
substitutes  for  butterfat.  We  do  not  condemn  them,  for  they 
are  valuable  food  products  as  sources  of  energy  and  their  use 
for  that  purpose  should  be  encouraged;  but  they  should  sail 
under  their  own  banner  and  be  used  in  nutrition  for  exactly 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare 


15 


what  they  are  worth.  To  remove  the  butterfat  from  whole 
milk  and  replace  it  with  cocoannt  oil  and  then  claim  that  the 
product  is  equal  to  whole  milk  for  the  nutrition  of  growing  chil- 
dren is  not  true. 

In  the  dairymen ’s  competition  with  butter  substitutes  a word 
should  be  said  concerning  oleomargarine.  This  product  is  made 
from  both  plant  and  animal  oils  and  the  higher  grades  are 
churned  with  milk  or  butter  or  both.  The  plant  oils  used  con- 
tribute no  fat  soluble  vitamine;  the  neutral  oil,  or  that  pressed 
from  lard,  contains  no  fat  soluble  vitamine.  The  oleo  oil,  or 


FIG.  8.— THE  EFFECT  OF  A DEFICIENCY  OF  THE  FAT  SOLUBLE  VITAMINE 

Two  rats  of  the  same  age  and  same  sex.  The  rat  on  the  left  received  as  its  source 
of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  5 per  cent  of  the  ration  from  a so-called  butter  substi- 
tute, while  the  rat  on  the  right  received  as  the  source  of  this  fat  soluble  vitamine  5 per 
cent  of  the  ration  as  butterfat.  Note  the  small  size  (109  grams)  and  sore  and  infected 
eyes  of  the  rat  on  the  left  as  compared  with  the  vigorous  condition,  bright  eyes  and 
larger  size  ( 202  grams)  of  the  rat  on  the  right. 

that  prepared  from  beef  fats,  does  contain  some  of  this  type  of 
vitamines  and  of  course  the  milk  products  contribute  another 
portion.  The  result  is  that  the  finished  oleomargarine  contains 
some  of  this  vitamine,  but  it  is  necessarily  not  in  the  same  con- 
centration as  found  in  the  natural  butter.  Their  dilution,  as 
compared  with  butterfat,  is  in  proportion  to  the  plant  oils  and 
neutral  oil  used,  with  a further  dilution  by  the  use  of  oleo  oil 
which  contains  this  substance  in  less  concentration  than  does 
butter.  Consequently,  even  the  higher  grades  of  oleomargarine 
will  have  their  fat  soluble  vitamine  content  diluted,  the  degree 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  291 


of  dilution  depending  upon  the  method  of  manufacture.  Five 
per  cent  of  butterfat  in  a ration  of  purified  food  materials  con- 
tributes enough  fat  soluble  vitamin e for  normal  growth,  but  5 
per  cent  of  the  oleomargarine  we  have  tested  will. not  accomplish 
this.  These  are  the  facts  as  they  are  known  today,  and  they 
should  make  it  clear  that  no  product  can  claim  the  distinction  of 
substitute  unless  it  shows  equal  nutritive  value  in  quantitative 
relations.  These  facts  do  not  condemn  oleomargarine  any  more 
than  they  condemn  plant  oils,  but  merely  disclose  what  each  con- 
tributes to  nutrition. 

In  the  mixed  diet  of  mature  men  it  undoubtedly  is  possible, 
by  the  proper  selection  of  foods,  to  meet  the  body  needs  for  the 
fat  soluble  vitamine  from  sources  other  than  dairy  products, 
but  we  cannot  afford  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  to 
advocate  that  growing  boys  and  girls,  and  mothers  should  econ- 
omize in  respect  to  adequate  nutritive  factors  by  using  substi- 
tutes that  do  not  substitute.  (See  figures  6,  7 and  8.) 

With  inadequate  supplies  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  in  the 
diet  a serious  form  of  malnutrition  has  been  observed.  In  some 
experimental  animals  deprived  of  this  growth  promoting  sub- 
stance for  a period  of  months  during  the  growing  period, 
there  occurs  a swelling  of  the  eyelids  and  marked  inflammation 
of  the  eyes.  If  the  faulty  diet  continues,  blindness  will  result 
and  eventually  death.  This  dietary  deficiency  disease  is  now 
called  xeropthalmia.  Recovery  can  be  effected  if  the  fat  soluble 
vitamine  is  replaced  in  the  diet  by  the  addition  of  butterfat  be- 
fore the  disease  has  progressed  too  far.  Cases  of  this  nature 
have  been  reported  from  time  to  time  as  occurring  among  Phil- 
ippine children  living  on  a vegetarian  diet,  especially  during  a 
period  of  drought  and  when  fresh  vegetables  were  scarce  or  un- 
obtainable. A Japanese  physician,  Mori,  recognized  that  animal 
organs,  such  as  chicken  livers,  would  cure  the  disease  when  added 
to  the  diet  of  these  children.  It  is  now  known  that  the  fats  of 
the  kidney  and  the  liver  contain  the  same  vitamine  as  does  but- 
terfat. Bloch,  a Danish  physician,  has  also  recently  reported 
the  occurrence  in  the  rural  districts  near  Copenhagen  of  the 
same  trouble  among  children  who  had  been  fed  exclusively  on 
a diet  of  separator  skimmed  milk.  Both  Bloch  and  Mori  con- 
sider the  disease  as  a fat  starvation,  but  as  pointed  out  by  Mon- 
rad it  is  probable  that  we  are  dealing  here  with  a vitamine  de- 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare 


17 


ficiency,  since  Bloch  reports  that  there  was  immediate  recovery 
when  whole  milk  was  given  these  children.  Figure  8 shows  the 
effect  on  a growing  rat  of  a deficiency  of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine 
and  its  .relation  to  eye  infection. 

Importance  of  the  Water  Soluble  Vitamine 

Besides  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  we  have  still  another  class  to 
consider.  Suppose  that  to  our  unsatisfactory  ration  of  proteins, 
carbohydrates  and  salts  there  is  added  the  egg  yolk  fat  or  butter 
fat;  we  will  find  that  the  ration  will  still  be  unsatisfactory.  If 


PIG.  9.— EFFECT  OF  A DEFICIENCY  OF  WATER  SOLUBLE  VITAMINE 

A pigeon  showing  a neck  spasm  in  an  acute  attack  of  avian  beriberi  (iiolyneuritis) 
resulting  from  the  consumption  of  a ration  of  polished  rice  which  is  deficient  in  the 
water  soluble  vitamine. 

next  we  make  a water  extract  of  the  egg  yolk  from  which  the  fat 
has  been  previously  removed  and  add  this  to  our  ration,  growth 
will  be  renewed  promptly.  It  was  not,  then,  the  addition  of 
fats  alone  or  of  substances  carried  by  them  that  caused  renewal 
of  growth  when  untreated  egg  yolk  was  added,  but  it  was  the 
addition  of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  and  water-soluble  vitamine. 
Both  are  indispensable  for  growth.  Like  the  fat  soluble  vita- 
mine the  water-soluble  vitamine  can  be  obtained  from  various 
sources.  It  is  found  in  abundance  in  milk,  eggs,  grains,  and 
the  leafy  portion  of  plants,  from  which  it  can  be  readily  ex- 
tracted with  water.  It  is  not  present  in  starch,  sugar  and  fats 
and  is  found  only  to  a very  limited  extent  in  polished  rice.  The 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  291 


fact  that  this  vitamine  occurs  in  insufficient  amount  in  polished 
rice  and  fish  has  lead  to  an  explanation  of  a widely  occurring 
disease  among  certain  classes  of  people  in  China,  India,  Japan 
and  the  Philippines,  who  have  lived  largely  on  these  two  pro- 
ducts. These  people  suffer  from  a disease  called  beri-beri,  the 


fig.  io.— effect  on  offspring  of  a deficiency  of  water  soluble 

VITAMINE 

This  rat  received  as  natural  food  but  10  per  cent  of  the  ration  as  barley  grain.  The 
rest  of  the  ration  was  from  purified  materials.  The  supply  of  water  soluble  vitamine 
was  sufficient  for  her  own  maintenance,  but  not  enough  for  both  herself  and  an  abun- 
dant supply  in  the  milk.  The  young  show  the  effect  of  this-  shortage.  They  grew  rap- 
idly for  a time,  but  suddenly  lost  weight  sharply  and  showed  periods  of  great  excita- 
bility. They  had  a rolling  gait  and  often  suffered  from  convulsions.  This  class  of 
vitamines  is  abundant  in  milk  as  normally  produced  from  natural  foods  and  is  also 
abundant  in  ;ggs,  seeds,  and  the  leafy  and  stem  portions  of  plants. 


Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare 


19 


most  prominent  symptom  of  which  is  a general  paralysis  caused 
by  the  degeneration  of  the  nerve  cells.  Only  those  who  eat  too 
abundantly  of  rice  after  it  is  polished  suffer  from  this  disease. 
The  cause  of  this  is  found  in  the  removal  of  the  germ  of  the  rice 
kernel,  for  it  is  in  this  part  of  the  seed  that  the  water-soluble 
vitamine  is  mainly  located.  In  polishing,  both  the  bran  layer 
and  the  germ  are  rubbed  off  and  the  polished  rice  behaves  in  the 
nutrition  of  the  animal  just  as  does  a mixture  of  purified  pro- 
teins, starch,  and  a mineral  salt  mixture.  Polished  rice  will  not 


FIG.  11.— EFFECT  OF  AN  IMPROPER  BALANCE  OF  DIET 


Ob  the  left,  too  low  a mineral  content;  center,  proper  balance  of  factors;  right,  too 
low  a protein  content.  These  rats,  are  of  the  same  sex  and  age,  but  received  different 
rations  from  the  time  that  they  were  weaned  until  the  above  picture  was  taken.  Their 
final  weights  were  respectively  63,  211,  and  47  grams. 

support  life  for  a very  long  period,  much  less  induce  growth  in 
the  young.  This  type  of  vitamine  is  abundant  in  milk,  eggs, 
seeds  and  the  leafy  portion  of  plants,  from  which  it  can  be  read- 
ily extracted  with  water.  Figures  9 and  10  show  the  effect  of  its 
absence  from  the  diet. 

There  appears  to  be  much  less  danger  to  the  public  welfare 
of  this  country  from  a deficiency  of  the  water-soluble  type  of 
vitamine  because  of  its  generous  occurrence  and  wide  distribu- 
tion, and  the  general  use  of  a mixed  diet. 

It  should  be  made  plain  again  that  neither  class  of  vitamines 
is  constructed  by  the  animal.  The  dairy  cow  concentrates  them 
from  the  feed  and  places  them  in  the  milk.  This  generous  and 
significant  act  entitles  her  to  the  name,  “The  foster  mother  of 
the  human  race.” 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  291 


Milk  a Necessity  in  the  Diet 

The  facts  concerning  the  nutritive  value  of  whole  milk  and 
its  products  presented  in  the  foregoing  pages  should  emphasize 
in  no  uncertain  way  the  great  necessity  on  the  part  of  the  pur- 
chasing public  of  realizing  the  important  place  the  dairy  indus- 
try should  occupy  in  the  life  of  this  nation.  With  an  increase 
in  the  price  of  cereal  grains,  grain  by-products,  and  other  feeds 
consumed  by  the  cow,  combined  with  an  increase  in  the  cost  of 


FIG.  12.— HOW  THE  GOOD  PROTEINS  OF  MILK  INFLUENCE  GROWTH 

Corn  and  clover  or  wheat  and  clover  are  not  deficient  in  energy,  minerals  or  vita- 
mines.  but  the  protein  mixture  is  not  as  good  aa  when  milk  is  added.  This  picture 
illustrates  what  Professor  Halpin  of  this  Station  has  done  with  baby  chicks  of  the 
same  hatch.  Those  on  the  right  received  corn  and  fresh  green  clover;  those  on  the 
left  were  given  com,  clover  and  skimmilk.  The  averse  weight  at  the  same  age  was 
respectively  84  grams  and  260  grams. 


farm  labor,  there  can  be  no  other  result  than  an  increase  in  the 
price  of  milk  and  dairy  products  if  many  of  the  milk  producers 
are  to  continue  in  business.  Even  at  a price  above  what  any 
of  us  are  now  paying  milk  is  one  of  the  cheapest  sources  of  nour- 
ishment. 

Milk  is  worth  more  than  its  energy  value ; it  is  the  great  fac- 
tor of  safety  as  a supplement  to  our  grains  and  makes  good  their 
deficiencies.  It  should  be  used  not  only  liberally  in  the  feeding 
of  children,  but  in  our  cookery  as  the  common  and  efficient  as- 
sistant of  our  diet. 


Bulletin  292 


May,  1918 


Price-Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm 
Products 

H.  C.  Taylor 


ONE  OF  THE  FIRST  PRICE-FIXING  COMMISSIONS 

The  Wisconsin  Milk  Commission  of  October,  1917,  in  conference  with  all 
parties  concerned,  settled  upon  the  price  of  milk  for  the  Chicago-Milwaukee 
district. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


The  demand  for  price  regulation  has  increased  rapidly  during  the 
past  year.  Cost  of  production  is  assumed  to  be  the  basis  of  this  regu- 
lation, but  there  has  been  much  difficulty  in  the  application  of  the 
cost  principle  to  price-fixing.  Pages  3—4 

Costs  vary  greatly  from  farm  to  farm.  To  fix  prices  on  the  basis  of 
average  costs  would  leave  about  half  the  farmers  producing  at  a loss. 

There  are  differences  of  opinion  as  to  whether  produced  feeds 
should  be  charged  at  cost  of  production  or  the  market  price. 

Pages  4-6 

It  is  difficult  to  distribute  cost  of  production.  Much  of  the  expense 
would  be  the  same  if  one  crop  in  a rotation  were  dropped;  hence  the 
specific  cost  of  a given  crop  cannot  be  used  as  a basis  of  price-fixing. 

Pages  6-8 

Total  farm  profit  is  recommended  as  the  starting  point  in  price- 
fixing. The  combined  prices  of  the  group  of  crops  produced  on  one 
farm  must  be  enough  to  make  the  given  type  of  farming  profitable. 
For  example,  if  the  milk  price  is  continually  held  too  low,  farmers 
may  find  total  farm  products  greater  in  the  production  of  beef  or  wool, 
in  which  less  labor  and  cheaper  feeds  are  required.  Where  there  are 
competing  crops  such  as  barley,  oats,  and  wheat  from  which  the 
farmer  may  choose,  the  price  of  wheat  cannot  be  held  down  while  the 
others  are  high  without  danger  of  reduction  in  the  seeding  of  wheat. 

Pages  8-12 

A bad  system  of  price  regulation  may  do  untold  damage  by  de- 
stroying agricultural  industries  which  have  required  decades  to  build. 
The  long-time  point  of  view  is  necessary  and  should  be  considered  by 
price  commissioners,  producers,  and  consumers.  Pages  12—14 

Price  commissions  should  make  a careful  study  of  the  demands  for 
consumption  at  the  various  possible  prices,  and  then  carefully  study 
the  conditions  of  production  to  find  what  supplies  can  be  produced 
profitably  at  the  various  prices  and  adjust  them  with  a view  to  keep- 
ing supply  and  demand  balanced.  Pages  14-15 

A price  commission  might  well  act  as  a medium  for  collective  bar- 
gaining in  the  sale  of  farm  products  and  in  the  purchase  of  supplies. 
It  could  steady  prices,  guide  production,  and  in  a measure,  direct  con- 
sumption so  that  the  greatest  good  might  result  to  all  concerned. 

Pages  1 5—1 6 


Price-Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm  Products 


Many  who  in  the  past  have  been  satisfied  to  leave  the  fixing  of 
prices  of  farm  products  entirely  to  competitive  forces  operat- 
ing under  the  law  of  supply  and  demand  now  see  the  need  of 
commissions  to  adjust  prices.  The  Price  Commission,  to  be  suc- 
cessful, cannot  represent  a class,  but  must  stand  for  economic 
justice  to  all  classes.  The  condition  and  needs  of  the  producer, 
the  distributor,  and  the  consumer  must  be  considered  with  equal 
care.  The  biggest  problem  in  price-fixing  is  to  get  the  facts 
needed  as  the  basis  of  action. 

For  many  years  the  idea  of  price  control  has  received  the  at- 
tention of  farmers  who  have  been  hard  pressed  to  make  both  ends 
meet.  Dollar  wheat  sounds  cheap  now,  but  at  one  time  it  looked 
like  a cure-all  for  the  ills  of  the  Dakota  farmers.  The  control  of 
cotton  prices  has  often  been  talked  about  in  times  of  low  prices, 
and  the  price  of  Burley  tobacco  was  more  than  doubled  by  the 
concerted  action  of  farmers  in  holding  their  product  and  refrain- 
ing from  growing  a crop  in  1908.  In  all  this  agitation  it  was 
argued  that  the  price  should  be  enough  to  pay  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion and  a reasonable  profit.  This  point  of  view  stimulated  in- 
terest in  farm  cost  accounting  as  a basis  for  price-fixing. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  many  state 
experiment  stations  have  cooperated  with  farmers  in  keeping  de- 
tailed records  of  man  and  horse  labor,  the  use  of  equipment,  and 
other  elements  of  costs,  as  well  as  the  yield,  in  quantity  and 
value,  of  each  kind  of  product.  Occasionally  a farmer  has  un- 
dertaken detailed  records  on  his  own  initiative  and  without  offi- 
cial aid,  but  the  amount  of  clerical  work  in  keeping  a complete 
system  of  cost  accounts  is  more  than  most  farmers  have  time  to 
do. 

In  the  official  promotion  of  farm  cost  accounting,  the  purpose 
has  not  always  been  well  defined;  but  there  have  been  at  least 
two  points  of  view.  A position  taken  by  many  who  are  inter- 
ested in  the  marketing  problem  is  that  costs  should  be  known  in 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  292 


order  that  they  may  be  used  as  a basis  of  price-fixing.  A view 
held  by  men  interested  in  the  problems  of  farm  management  is 
that  cost  accounts  show  the  relative  profitableness  of  competing 
crops  and  livestock  enterprises,  and  hence  give  the  starting  point 
for  scientific  farm  management. 

It  would  seem  that  the  Federal  Food  Administration  in  fixing 
the  price  of  wheat,  and  the  Chicago  Federal  Milk  Commission 
in  its  work  of  the  past  winter,  assumed  that  cost  of  production 
is  the  foundation  of  price-fixing,  yet  when  these  officials  have  ap- 
proached the  final  problem  of  price-fixing,  they  have  found 
themselves  confronted  with  unexpected  difficulties. 

Why  all  this  difficulty  in  the  use  of  cost  accounts  as  a basis 
of  price-fixing?  There  are  doubtless  many  reasons,  but  there  are 
three  of  unusual  importance.  First,  variation  in  costs ; second, 
joint  costs;  and  third,  disagreement  in  the  elements  of  costs. 
But  in  spite  of  these  difficulties,  accounting  may  be  used  in  price 
control. 


Variation  in  Costs 

There  is  a very  wide  range  in  the  cost  figures  whichsJiave  been 
secured  by  careful  methods  of  accounting  and  there  are  wide 
ranges  in  the  estimates  of  costs  of  different  producers.  On  the 
basis  of  a farm  management  survey  made  on  51  farms  in  one 
dairy  district  in  Wisconsin,  the  return  per  dollar  of  annual  out- 
lay ranged  from  77  cents  to  $3.05.  The  results  of  the  Wisconsin 
Dairy  Cow  Competition  carried  on  in  1909-11  illustrated  this 
point.  The  return  per  dollar’s  worth  of  feed  consumed  by  the 
398  cows  in  this  contest  varied  from  92  cents  to  $2.71 ; the  aver- 
age of  the  best  ten  was  $2.38  worth  of  product  per  dollar’s  worth 
of  feed  and  the  average  of  the  poorest  ten  was  $1.11. 

With  wide  ranges  in  the  costs  of  production,  which  cost  shall 
be  accepted  as  the  basis  of  price-fixing?  The  average  has  been 
seriously  suggested  but  abandoned  in  disgust  when  it  has  been 
realized  that  a price  fixed  on  the  basis  of  average  costs  would 
probably  result  in  a loss  on  half  the  farms. 

The  marginal  or  greatest  costs  have  also  been  suggested. 
Economists  have  a theory  that  prices  tend  to.  equal  marginal 
costs;  this  is  thought  to  be  true  because  it  is  assumed  that  the 
man  who  is  producing  at  a loss  will  drop  out,  or,  if  the  supply 
is  short  the  price  will  rise  to  the  point  attracting  others  less  fav- 


Price-Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm  Products 


5 


orably  situated  to  enter  the  same  line  of  production  and  thus 
keep  the  price  and  the  greatest  cost  tending  to  equal,  though  at 
any  given  time  they  might  be  far  apart.  There  seems  to  be  some 
relation,  therefore,  between  the  highest  cost  necessary  to  produce 
a given  supply  and  the  price  which  in  the  long  run  will  have  to 
be  paid  in  order  to  get  the  supply. 

Disagreements  Regarding  the  Elements  of  Cost 

The  price  at  which  to  charge  the  supplies  which  have  been 
produced  upon  the  farm,  presents  further  difficulties  in  the 
efforts  to  determine  costs.  Shall  feeds  be  charged  at  cost  of  pro- 
duction or  at  market  price?  In  calculating  the  cost  of  a 1918 
corn  crop,  should  the  seed  corn  be  charged  at  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion or  at  the  market  price?  A similar  question  arises  with  re- 
spect to  seed  potatoes.  In  figuring  the  cost  of  milk  the  ques- 
tion arises:  Should  the  hay,  the  oats,  and  the  corn  produced 
on  the  farm  be  charged  on  the  basis  of  cost  of  production  or  at 
the  market  price?  There  seems  to  be  an  accepted  rule  of  ac- 
counting "which  gives  definite  directions  to  charge  all  the  pro- 
duced supplies  at  cost  and  not  at  market  price.  On  the  other 
hand,  farm  cost  accountants  connected  with  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  various  experiment  stations 
have  quite  generally  charged  these  produced  supplies  at  market 
price  minus  the  cost  of  delivering  them  to  the  market. 

A few  years  ago  when  the  point  of  view  was  that  of  proving 
that  dairying  was  profitable  and  an  industry  which  should  be 
stimulated  by  the  press  in  every  way  possible,  one  agricultural 
paper  held  tenaciously  to  the  old  accounting  rule  of  charging 
feed  to  the  cows  at  cost  of  production  because  this  magnified  the 
profits  of  dairying  by  throwing  the  field  profits  into  the  dairy 
account.  Now  that  the  point  of  view  has  changed  and  the  price 
of  milk  is  looked  upon  as  the  objective  point  in  cow  cost  account- 
ing, this  same  paper  is  definitely  of  the  opinion  that  produced 
feeds  should  be  charged  to  the  cows  on  the  basis  of  market  price. 
It  is  not  difficult  therefore  to  understand  why  there  should  have 
been  two  opinions,  on  this  point,  before  the  Chicago  Milk  Com- 
mission. Each  party  accepts  the  rule  of  accounting  which  best 
serves  his  interest. 

If  there  were  two  methods  of  testing  the  amount  of  butter  fat 
in  milk,  one  of  which  favored  the  farmer  and  the  other  the  pur- 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  292 


chaser,  this  same  alignment  of  the  interests  would  doubtless  be 
formed.  Fortunately  there  is  one  accurate  fat  test  accepted  by 
all,  hence  this  occasion  of  trouble  is  avoided.  What  is  needed 
to  settle  this  question  in  accounting  is  one  correct  rule  based 
upon  the  ecomonic  principles  underlying  the  case.  Obviously 
both  of  the  opposed  rules  cannot  be  based  upon  a sound  founda- 
tion; hence  arises  the  question,  Is  either  rule  correct?  If  not, 
how  can  the  correct  principle  be  discovered  ? It  is  believed  that 
the  true  solution  of  this  problem  lies  in  the  substitution  of  total 
farm  profits  for  specific  costs  as  a basis  of  price  regulation. 

Joint  Costs 

The  typical  farm  provides  a much  more  difficult  accounting 
problem  than  a saw-mill,  a flour-mill,  a cotton-mill  or  a steel- 
mill.  The  problem  is  more  nearly  comparable  to  that  in  railway 
accounting,  where  one  expenditure  affects  a great  number  of 
sources  of  income.  The  farmer  who  produces  but  one  crop  is 
rare.  On  the  typical  dairy  farm,  corn,  small  grain,  clover  hay, 
and  pasture,  cattle,  horses,  and  hogs  are  all  produced.  The  same 
plows,  harrows,  and  horses  are  used  for  the  various  crops  which 
require  attention  at  different  seasons  and  the  same  laborers  are 
used  for  crops  and  livestock.  When  the  corn  is  being  cultivated 
the  corn  is  not  only  benefited  but  the  land  is  being  put  into  bet- 
ter condition  for  the  small  grain  crop  which  will  be  grown  the 
next  year.  When  the  land  is  prepared  for  small  grain  the  seed- 
bed for  the  clover  is  being  prepared,  and  oats  or  barley  serves  as 
a nurse  crop  for  the  clover  plant  which  in  turn  is  able  to  draw 
upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  provide  plant  food  needed  for 
its  own  growth  and  for  the  corn  crop  which  is  to  follow.  Hence 
the  costs  of  these  three  crops  are  said  to  be  joint  costs. 

Under  these  circumstances,  suppose  it  is  found  that  the  oat 
crop  costs  more  than  the  market  price,  that  the  cost  of  oats  is 
ten  cents  greater  than  the  price.  What  can  the  farmer  do  about 
it?  He  can  do  a little  figuring  to  see  whether  or  not  another 
crop  which  requires  his  attention  at  the  same  periods  and  which 
serves  equally  well  as  a nurse  crop,  barley  for  example,  can  be 
substituted  with  a profit  or  with  a smaller  loss.  If  not,  should  the  j 
farmer  cut  out  the  small  grain  crop?  Usually  not.  The  total 
cost  of  man  and  horse  labor  would  be  reduced  little  by  omitting 


Price-Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm  Products 


7 


the  oat  crop  because  oats  and  corn  require  labor  at  different  sea- 
sons and  are  supplementary  to  each  other.  If  this  crop  were 
not  grown  the  hours  of  productive  labor  would  probably  be  re- 
duced and  the  average  charge  per  hour  for  labor  applied  to  the 
corn  would  be  greater. 

But  this  is  not  all.  Oats  are  used  as  a nurse  crop  for  clover, 
and  while  it  may  be  possible  to  grow  clover  without  a nurse  crop, 
this  would  cost  nearly  as  much  as  putting  in  the  oats.  Hence 
the  growing  of  small  grain  is  usually  the  cheapest  way  to  get 
a seeding  of  clover  and  where  clover  thrives  this  is  the  best  way 
to  secure  nitrogen  for  the  corn  crop.  Thus  it  is  the  joint  results 
of  the  joint  costs  which  are  important. 

Having  adopted  the  system  of  farming,  the  parts  of  it  should 
be  adhered  to  so  long  as  the  system  as  a whole  continues  to  be 
attractive,  and  so  long  as  each  part  of  the  system  continues  to 
pay  better  than  the  substitute  which  is  competing  for  a place  in 
the  system. 

The  corn,  oats,  and  clover  combination  is  not  a complete  sys- 
tem of  farming  in  itself.  It  is  usually  combined  with  one  or 
more  livestock  enterprises.  Beef  cattle  and  hogs,  dairy  cattle 
and  hogs,  or  straight  dairying  may  be  combined  with  this  crop- 
ping system.  In  each  of  these  systems  there  are  many  instances 
of  joint  costs.  The  joint  cost  of  fattening  steers  and  hogs  is 
commonly  understood  among  feeders.  Where  butter  fat  and 
pigs  and  veal  calves  are  the  products  sold,  these  three  products 
have  elements  of  joint  cost.  Where  purebred  cattle  and  milk 
are  sold  the  costs  are  joint  and  inseparable;  the  important  ques- 
tion relates  to  the  profit  of  the  system  as  a whole. 

Where  grade  cows  are  purchased  and  used  for  the  production 
of  city  milk  we  approach  more  nearly  to  a specific  cost  of  a spe- 
cific product  as  far  as  the  livestock  industry  is  concerned,  with 
only  a small  by-product  in  the  form  of  a veal  calf.  And  yet 
this  type  of  dairying  has  its  costs  intermixed  with  the  system 
of  cropping,  notably  in  the  use  of  labor,  the  use  of  crops,  and 
the  provision  of  fertilizer.  Hence,  in  mixed  farming,  joint  costs 
are  present  to  block  the  effort  to  arrive  at  the  cost  of  producing 
any  specific  farm  product. 

Where  two  articles  are  produced  as  a result  of  the  same  work 
the  combined  prices  of  the  two  tend  to  equal  the  greatest  neces- 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  292 


sary  cost  of  producing  them,  but  the  price  of  each  article  is  de- 
termined separately  on  the  basis  of  supply  and  demand. 

Consumers  want  a variety  of  things  produced  by  the  farmer. 
How  much  a consumer  will  pay  for  a given  article  depends  upon 
the  intensity  of  his  desire  for  it.  The  intensity  of  this  desire 
depends  upon  how  abundantly  he  has  been  supplied.  The  more 
he  takes  the  less  he  will  pay  for  any  given  unit  of  the  goods. 
Unfortunately,  under  conditions  of  joint  costs  there  are  certain 
physical  facts  which  determine  the  ratios  in  which  goods  are  pro- 
duced, without  much  regard  to  the  ratios  of  the  intensity  of  the 
desire  for  them.  As  a result  the  supply-demand  price  of  one 
product  may  be  higher  and  that  of  another  lower  than  the  cost, 
but  the  combination  of  crops  may  prove  profitable.  The  case 
is  similar  to  the  situation  in  the  oil  business.  Gasoline  and  kero- 
sene have  a joint  cost;  and  it  is  the  condition  of  the  market  and 
the  relative  proportion  in  which  they  are  obtainable  at  a common 
cost  which  makes  the  price  of  gasoline  nearly  twice  as  high  as 
that  of  kerosene  at  the  present  time. 

Total  Farm  Profits  and  Price  Regulation 

When  the  point  of  view  of  total  farm  profits  is  accepted  by 
the  price  commissioner  the  problem  becomes  that  of  so  regulat- 
ing prices  that  the  farmer  in  one  line  of  production  may  reap 
as  large  a reward  as  he  could  earn  producing  some  other  pro- 
duct, or  else  of  helping  him  in  getting  into  some  other  line  of 
production.  By  looking  to  total  farm  profits  he  avoids  many  of 
the  difficulties  arising  out  of  differences  in  the  costs  of  produc- 
ing a given  article  by  different  men.  Even  if  it  costs  one  man 
2 cents  a quart  to  produce  milk,  another  3 cents,  another  4 cents, 
and  still  another  5 cents  a quart  in  a given  city  milk  belt,  yet 
each  of  these  men  may  be  doing  the  type  of  farming  which  pays 
him  best  and  the  industry  may  be  stable  so  long  as  relative  prices 
remain  the  same.  Likewise  the  question  of  joint  costs  is  avoided, 
for  it  is  no  longer  a question  of  the  cost  of  a specific  product, 
but  of  comparing  the  total  farm  profits  resulting  from  the  var- 
ious types  of  farming  and  from  the  different  competing  elements 
in  each  kind  of  farming.  Furthermore,  the  question  of  charg- 
ing feed  at  market  price  or  cost  of  production  would  seem  to  pass 
with  the  effort  to  find  specific  costs.  However,  something  akin 
to  this  latter  remains.  The  farmer  may  compare  the  profits 


Price-Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm  Products  9 

he  would  make  if  he  sold  his  corn,  oats  and  hay  at  present  market 
prices  instead  of  feeding  them  to  cows  and  selling  milk.  In  this 
he  should  not  assume  that  if  the  community  turned  from  milk 
selling  to  crop  selling  that  the  prices  of  all  these  crops  would  be 
what  they  were  before  the  change,  neither  should  he  assume 
that  his  crops  would  yield  the  same  if  he  changed  to  grain  grow- 
ing for  the  market.  Oats  and  corn  are  used  directly  for  human 
food  and  have  many  other  uses  and  are  so  easily  shipped  that 
there  would  continue  to  be  a market  for  them,  if  not  used  as  cow 
feed ; but  clover  hay  is  a stock  food  and  it  is  not  so  easily  mark- 
eted. The  important  alternative  uses  for  clover  if  not  used  for 
cows  are  (1)  to  feed  to  beef  cattle,  (2)  to  sheep,  or  (3)  to  plow 
under  as  a fertilizer,  any  of  which  conserves  its  value  as  a land- 
builder  as  a basis  for  grain  growing.  Where  clover  has  entered 
into  commerce  it  has  usually  been  as  a feed  for  dairy  cows. 
When  discarded  for  this  use,  therefore,  the  marketing  of  clover 
hay  could  not  be  counted  upon.  A farmer  in  the  Chicago  milk 
district  insists  at  this  moment  that  it  pays  better  to  sell  grains 
and  plow  the  clover  under  than  to  make  clover  hay  and  feed  it  to 
livestock.  He  is  practicing  this  system  now  and  is  satisfied.  In 
this  and  similar  cases  it  is  the  alternative  use  value  rather  than 
cost  or  present  market  price  which  becomes  the  basis  of  compar- 
ing the  profits  of  types  of  farming,  and  hence  the  basis  of  choice. 

This  means  that  formally  assigned  specific  costs  are  of  little 
use  in  the  discussion  of  price-fixing.  It  does  not  mean  however 
that  cost  accounting  is  of  no  use  in  the  study  of  this  problem ; in 
fact,  accounts  are  very  necessary,  but  in  a different  way  from 
what  has  been  supposed.  Accounts  are  useful  to  the  farmer  in 
making  choice  of  crops  and  live  stock  enterprises  and  his  meth- 
ods of  production.  Accounts  are  useful  to  the  price  commissioner 
in  estimating  the  price  necessary  to  call  out  continuously  the  de- 
sired supply  of  produce  of  a given  kind  and  of  suitable  quality. 
For  these  purposes  specific  costs  may  not  be  needed.  What  are 
needed  are  figures  comparing  the  profitableness  of  the  different 
things  to  which  the  producer  can  turn  his  attention.  The  alert 
farmer  is  ever  figuring  on  the  combination  of  crop  and  livestock 
production  which  will  pay  him  best  with  a given  price  schedule 
and  with  given  costs  for  land,  labor,  and  equipments. 

When  the  point  of  view  in  farm  cost  accounting  is  shifted 
from  specific  costs  to  comparison  of  profits  the  whole  problem  is 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  292 


much  simplified.  In  the  attempt  to  secure  specific  costs,  ac- 
counts had  to  be  kept  in  minute  detail  comprehending  every 
activity  and  economic  relation  of  the  farm.  As  soon  as  one 
shifts  to  the  point  of  view  of  comparing  the  profits  of  competing 
enterprises,  no  record  need  be  kept  unless  the  farmer  really  has 
a choice  and  then  only  such  records  as  are  essential  to  answering 
the  question,  Does  this  pay  better  than  that?  For  example, 
the  farmer  in  southern  Wisconsin  has  a choice  between  growing 
oats  and  barley.  In  order  to  make  a wise  choice  on  this  point 
it  is  not  necessary  to  know  the  specific  cost  of  growing  either 
oats  or  barley.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  know  differences  in 
costs  and  differences  in  the  value  of  the  crops.  In  this  case  the 
same  tools,  machinery,  horses  and  men  are  used  at  essentially 
the  same  time  of  year  whether  the  farmer  grows  the  one  crop 
or  the  other.  These  common  items  of  cost  may  be  omitted  for 
they  cancel  each  other  in  the  calculation.  When  put  in  this 
form  the  question  is  so  simple  that  almost  any  farmer  can  figure 
it  out  on  the  basis  of  such  facts  as  are  easily  available  by  keeping 
a production  record  and  by  studying  price  quotations. 

The  milk  producer  has  a number  of  ways  of  disposing  of  his 
product.  He  may  sell  whole  milk  to  a city,  or  a condensery. 
He  may  take  his  milk  to  a cheese  factory  and  carry  home  the 
whey  or  he  may  separate  the  cream  and  sell  it  for  city  use  or  to 
a butter  factory.  If  the  milk  is  marketed  through  the  cheese 
factory,  hog  production  is  introduced  as  a supplementary  indus- 
try using  the  whey.  If  he  sells  cream,  calf  raising  and  pork 
production  may  be  combined  with  dairying  as  a means  of  using 
the  skimmilk.  All  of  these  different  types  of  dairying  can  be 
based  upon  the  corn,  oats,  hfiy,  cropping  system.  The  combina- 
tion a given  farmer  should  choose  depends  upon  which  pays 
best  under  his  particular  conditions  of  production  and  market- 
ing. 

The  dairy  farmer  has,  of  course,  other  alternatives.  He  can 
change  from  dairying  to  beef  and  pork  production,  based  upon 
the  same  field  crops.  Again,  he  can  abandon  cattle  and  hogs 
entirely,  grow  grain  to  sell  and  raise  horses  as  a side-line  to  use  i 
up  much  of  the  unsalable  roughage,  but  in  figuring  the  merits 
of  this  last  system,  influence  upon  fertility  and  production  of  j 
grain  per  acre  should  not  be  ignored.  He  has  the  further  alter- 
native of  trying  his  fortune  in  the  city,  and  this  horn  of  the  di- 
lemma has  frequently  been  the  choice. 


Price-Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm  Products 


11 


With  all  these  opportunities  before  him,  the  farmers  are  slow 
to  shift  from  one  thing  to  another  in  normal  times  because,  for  a 
given  community,  the  question  of  what  pays  best  becomes  fairly 
well  settled.  Near  the  cities,  whole  milk  of  high  quality  is  pro- 
duced under  sanitary  conditions  of  a higher  standard  than  in 
other  dairy  regions.  Outside  of  the  milk  zone  there  are  scatter- 
ing cream  shippers  selected  mainly  with  respect  to  the  characters 
of  the  farmers  participating.  These  are  intermingled  with  the 
farmers  producing  for  the  creameries  and  cheese  factories.  The 
city  milk  zone  becomes  more  or  less  well  defined  with  the  boun- 
dary line  moving  out  a little  farther  in  winter  and  contracting 
in  summer,  with  a gradual  expansion  of  the  milk  zone  about  a 
growing  city. 

But  in  abnormal  times  when  radical  changes  are  taking  place 
in  the  prices  of  all  these  competing  lines  of  production,  farmers 
with  their  eyes  upon  the  market  become  uneasy  and  unsettled 
in  their  convictions  as  to  what  to  produce.  The  fact  that  the 
producer  of  city  milk  is  getting  more  than  he  ever  got  before 
is  not  a sufficient  consolation  if  he  might  be  making  more  profits 
selling  grain,  hogs,  and  butter  fat,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  has 
gone  to  greater  expense  to  equip  his  farm  for  meeting  the  re- 
quirements of  the  city  ordinances.  It  is  this  unsettled  condi- 
tion which  has  given  rise  to  the  recent  efforts  to  regulate  prices. 

In  deciding  upon  a fair  price  to  the  farmer  on  the  part  of  a 
commission  the  alternative  choices  of  the  farmer  become  the  basis 
for  a rational  decision.  The  industry  should  be  made  attractive 
to  the  farmer  if  he  is  expected  to  remain  in  it.  But  what  is 
essential  to  make  a given  system  of  farming  attractive?  Must 
it  pay  some  -definite  labor  income  to  each  farmer  engaged  in  it  ? 
Apparently  not,  for  as  a matter  of  fact  men  are  remaining  in 
each  type  of  farming  who  are  making  small  incomes  while  others 
are  making  very  large  incomes. 

Whether  or  not  a man  should  continue  to  carry  on  a given 
type  of  farming  depends  upon  his  opportunities  in  other  lines  of 
farming  or  other  lines  than  farming.  If  there  is  no  better  out- 
look, if  he  is  doing  better  than  he  could  do  any  place  else,  he  will 
probably  continue  to  produce  the  supply  for  the  price  he  can  get 
and  look  to  methods  of  reducing  costs  as  a means  of  increasing 
profits.  If  there  is  an  alternative  which  will  pay  him  much  bet- 
ter, which  should  he  do,  ask  that  his  price  be  lifted  to  the  point 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  292 


where  his  present  activities  will  pay  as  well  as  the  alternative 
or  quietly  choose  the  better  paying  activity  ? The  answer  is  not 
so  obvious  as  it  might  at  first  appear.  Shifting  is  often  expen- 
sive and  there  is  usually  hope  that  conditions  will  change  and 
the  old  line  will  again  pay  better.  It  often  takes  a generation 
to  build  up  a type  of  farming,  and  when  the  system  becomes  un- 
profitable a serious  loss  is  suffered  before  readjustment  can  be 
made.  Yet  where  permanent  changes  in  market  conditions  have 
come  about,  changes  in  farming  are  necessary.  Where  read- 
justments should  be  made  it  is  believed  that  public  expenditures 
to  aid  in  the  readjustment,  especially  by  means  of  educational 
campaigns,  may  often  be  more  desirable  than  price  lifting  as  a 
means  of  making  the  industry  profitable. 

Here  is  work  for  price  commissioners  well  trained  in  agricul- 
tural economics,  who  will  ascertain  the  true  cause  of  price 
changes,  make  a study  of  the  conditions  of  production,  and  advise 
the  farmers  in  making  readjustments  in  their  farm  management 
or  in  standing  by  their  old  lines  of  production  as  the  case  may 
warrant.  In  this  work  the  price  commissioner  should  not  forget 
that  the  well-being  of  the  farmer  is  just  as  important  as  that  of 
the  consumer,  and  that  in  the  long  run  prices  should  be  such  as 
will  make  farm  work  and  country  life  attractive. 

In  carrying  out  this  policy,  price  lifting  may  at  times  prove 
desirable.  This  is  most  likely  to  happen  in  case  of  articles  like 
milk  for  which  the  price  is  more  or  less  influenced  by  custom  and 
which  is  often  sold  at  the  same  price  for  long  periods  and  which 
for  this  reason  does  not  adjust  itself  quickly  enough  in  times  of 
radical  changes  in  the  general  price  level ; but  wherever  isolated 
farmers  in  great  numbers  are  acting  individually  in  selling  their 
produce  to  great  corporations,  need  may  often  arise  for  price 
regulation  by  public  authority  to  maintain  the  public  interest. 

In  deciding  upon  prices  both  the  farmer  and  the  price  com- 
missioner should  keep  the  long-time  as  well  as  the  immediate 
effect  in  mind.  It  takes  decades  to  build  up  the  dairy  industry 
in  a community.  Equipments  require  time  for  construction. 
Years  are  required  to  build  up  good  herds,  and  decades  are  re- 
quired to  train  a whole  community  in  the  fine  art  of  producing 
high-class  milk.  When  such  a community  is  diverted  from  dairy- 
ing to  another  line  of  production,  the  farmers  suffer  a great  loss 
while  making  the  change  and  while  adjusting  themselves  to  new 


Price-Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm  Products 


13 


lines  of  production,  after  which  they  may  again  prosper.  But 
if  the  farmers  are  needed  to  produce  the  supply  of  milk  essen- 
tial to  the  welfare  of  the  people  of  the  city,  the  loss  of  skilled 
dairymen  will  result  in  a heavy  loss  to  the  consumers,  who  will 
have  to  pay  higher  prices  for  milk,  and  probably  find  it  neces- 
sary to  lower  their  standards  with  respect  to  quality  in  order  to 
get  the  necessary  supply. 

Hence  it  is  the  long-time  averages  which  must  be  considered. 
The  records  of  one  year  may  indicate  that  the  profits  would  have 
been  greater  had  the  farmer  been  in  another  line  of  production, 
similar  to  that  practiced  outside  of  the  city  milk  belt.  In  con- 
templating these  figures,  the  farmer  should  look  for  the  unusual 
conditions  which  have  made  this  true.  If  the  conditions  are  tem- 
porary he  should  hold  fast  to  his  present  line  and  recall  the  years 
when  his  profits  were  much  the  greater  because  he  was  in  the 
dairy  business. 

If,  however,  it  becomes  apparent  that  permanent  changes  in 
market  conditions  have  taken  place  which  account  for  the  change 
in  profits,  a move  should  be  initiated  to  bring  about  a readjust- 
ment of  the  farming  to  suit  the  new  market  conditions ; possibly 
some  dairymen  should  change  to  other  lines  of  production.  But 
this  is  not  a matter  for  hasty  action,  especially  in  the  case  of  the 
dairy  industry  where  public  welfare  is  at  stake  and  where  a 
change  has  far  reaching  effects  through  a series  of  years. 

Changes  which  the  farmer  may  make  in  grain  production  or 
hog  production  may  be  quickly  readjusted,  but  not  so  with  milk 
production.  One’s  ill-feelings  towards  other  people  should  not 
enter  his  decision.  One  should  not  get  angry  and  sell  his  herd 
of  cows.  Cold  reason  should  form  the  basis  of  judgment.  It 
is  easy  to  disperse  a good  dairy  herd  but  it  takes  years  to  rebuild 
it.  A much  safer  plan  is  to  cut  down  a little  on  the  number  of 
cows  by  cutting  out  the  least  profitable  ones  and  plan  to  sell 
some  grain  or  hogs  in  addition  to  milk  rather  than  to  make  a 
radical  change  in  type  of  farming. 

If  the  profits  of  milk  production  are  temporarily  low  on  a 
large  share  of  the  farms  in  a given  city  milk  belt,  due  to  short 
crops  of  grain  and  hay,  which  for  this  reason  must  be  shipped 
in  at  heavy  cost,  the  farmer  should  not  only  look  to  the  long-time 
average,  and  to  the  maintenance  of  his  market,  but  he  should 
recognize  the  occasion  of  his  loss,  namely,  the  short  crop,  and 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  292 


should  lay  this  loss  to  the  land  or  to  the  way  he  has  handled 
his  land  and  not  ask  that  the  consumer  should  pay  the  rent  on 
the  land  which  did  not  produce  the  feed  and  also  pay  for  the 
purchased  feed. 

The  farmer  should  not  be  too  insistent  upon  the  consumer’s 
price  varying  exactty  with  his  costs  from  season  to  season  and 
from  year  to  year.  Custom  is  a big  item  in  determining  what 
people  will  eat.  So  long  as  prices  are  the  same  the  customer  is 
not  likely  to  change,  but  every  time  the  consumers  ’ price  changes, 
consumption  customs  are  shaken;  and  the  more  violent  the 
change  the  more  likely  the  custom  is  to  be  upset.  It  is  not  only 
the  industry,  then,  but  the  market  which  may  be  damaged  by 
impassioned  actions  in  times  like  these. 

Just  as  it  is  by  comparing  profits  that  the  farmer  makes  choice 
of  types  of  farming,  so  it  is  by  comparing  prices  in  the  market 
that  the  consumer  makes  choice.  If  it  is  done  in  the  right  way, 
the  price  of  one  commodity  may  be  raised  as  rapidly  as  that  of 
its  substitute.  So  long  as  relative  prices  are  the  same  the 
choices  may  be  expected  to  be  the  same.  If,  however,  much 
publicity  of  an  antagonistic  sort  accompanies  the  change  in  the 
price  of  one  article  while  the  change  in  another  is  accompanied 
by  shrewd  advertising  which  wins  the  sympathy  of  the  consumer, 
there  may  be  a falling  off  in  the  demand  of  the  former  and  an  in- 
crease in  the  consumption  of  the  latter. 

In  connection  with  the  Chicago  milk  hearings  the  idea  of  com- 
paring the  profitableness  of  the  different  types  of  dairying  was 
suggested,  with  especial  reference  to  ratios  between  milk  prices 
and  butter  prices,  but  apparently  the  commissioners  did  not  see 
anything  they  thought  usable  in  the  suggestion.  So  far  as  has 
been  noted,  relative  prices  to  consumers  were  not  considered  as 
a basis  of  price-fixing. 

The  farmers  took  the  lead  in  the  first  instance,  and  were  set 
upon  having  a price  based  upon  specific  costs.  It  was  a very 
natural  thing  therefore  when  the  commissioners  despaired  of  as- 
certaining specific  costs,  for  them  to  turn  to  a ratio  between  the 
price  of  feeds  and  the  price  of  milk  as  a basis  of  price  regulation. 
This  resulted  in  the  acceptance  of  what  has  been  known  as  the 
Pearson  formula. 

One  weakness  of  the  Pearson  formula  arises  out  of  the  fact 
that  the  price  of  milk  is  the  major  factor  in  determining  the 


Price-Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm  Products 


15 


prices  of  many  of  the  articles  of  cow  feed.  The  price  of  bran, 
prepared  dairy  feeds,  or  clover  hay,  are  determined  largely  by 
the  price  of  milk.  For  example,  a high  price  of  milk  stimulates 
milk  production,  which  stimulates  the  demand  for  feed,  resulting 
in  an  increased  feed  price,  which,  according  to  the  formula, 
provides  for  a still  higher  milk  price.  Thus  started  on  its  up- 
ward course  nothing  would  stop  the  upward  trend  of  prices  ex- 
cepting the  lack  of  buyers  for  the  milk  at  the  ever  rising  price. 
So  far  as  has  been  learned,  the  commission  has  not  arranged  to 
take  all  the  milk  which  is  offered  at  the  price.  On  the  other 
hand,  suppose  the  price  ratio  is  narrow,  resulting  in  a milk 
price  too  low  for  profit.  How  would  this  affect  the  producers? 
The  farmers  would  lose  money  and  would  produce  less  milk. 
The  demand  for  dairy  feed  would  fall  off,  and  the  price  of  feeds 
would  fall.  This,  according  to  the  Pearson  formula,  would  call 
for  a lowering  of  the  price  of  milk  which  would  further  depress 
milk  production  and  the  price  of  feeds,  and  in  turn  the  price 
of  milk,  even  though  the  demand  for  milk  might  justify  a higher 
price.  Thus  it  is  that  the  Pearson  formula  possesses  elements  of 
danger  and  will  in  all  probability  fail  to  serve  the  purpose  in- 
tended. 

The  commission  has  yet  the  problem  of  price-fixing  to  solve. 
It  is  believed  that  after  the  excitement  of  the  present  conflict  is 
past  the  commissioners  will  turn  to  a careful  study  of  the  amount 
and  character  of  the  milk  demanded  at  various  prices  and  the 
character  and  amount  of  milk  which  can  be  secured  at  these 
prices,  and  will  adjust  the  milk  price  on  the  basis  of  maintaining 
an  equilibrium  between  demand  and  supply  through  a long  pe- 
riod. In  doing  this  they  will  need  to  take  into  account  the  sub- 
stitutes to  which  the  consumer  may  turn,  as  well  as  profits  in 
other  types  of  farming  to  which  the  milk  producer  may  later 
change  if  the  milk  price  is  fixed  too  low  compared  with  other 
prices. 

The  much  talked  of  law  of  supply  and  demand  is  too  little 
understood.  It  does  not  always  work  perfectly.  It  might  be 
made  to  work  much  better  under  the  guidance  of  a commission 
than  when  left  to  the  free  and  unequal  bargaining  power  of 
great  distributing  corporations  on  the  one  hand  and  the  iso- 
lated producers  on  the  other. 

A properly  constituted,  permanent  price  commission  might 
inaugurate  an  educational  program  which  would  improve  the 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  292 


mutual  attitude  of  mind  of  the  producer  and  consumer  toward 
each  other,  which  would  make  each  more  considerate  of  the  rights 
of  the  other  that  are  in  the  long  run  fundamental  to  the  inter- 
ests of  all  concerned. 

Furthermore,  such  a commission,  well  informed  with  regard 
to  the  facts  of  production,  distribution,  and  consumption,  would 
form  a desirable  medium  for  collective  bargaining  between  the 
organized  producers  on  the  one  hand  and  the  organized  distri- 
butors on  the  other,  which  appears  to  be  the  logical  outcome  of 
present  tendencies  and  which  would  appear  to  be  desirable 
wherever  large  numbers  of  isolated  farmers  are  selling  to  large 
corporations  such  as  the  milk  distributors  in  the  large  cities,  the 
packers  and  the  grain  dealers,  and  possibly  in  many  other  in- 
stances. Even  where  the  more  specific  functions  of  price-fixing 
are  unnecessary,  there  is  an  important  work  for  price  commis- 
sioners in  studying  market  conditions  and  the  conditions  of  sup- 
ply and  in  educating  both  producer  and  consumer  to  rational 
action. 

In  passing  judgment  upon  the  merits  of  commission  prices 
in  comparison  with  unregulated  prices  too  much  weight  should 
not  be  given  to  the  results  of  commissions  which  of  necessity 
have  been  organized  hastily  under  the  stress  of  war  time  condi- 
tions. It  will  take  time  to  develop  good  price  commissions ; but 
what  is  so  much  worth  while  is  worth  striving  for. 


Bulletin  293 


May,  1918 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 

A.  H.  Wright 


HEMP  IN  THE  SHOOK 

Hemp  raising  in  Wisconsin  has  increased  seven-fold  since  1912.  In  certain 
localities  it  is  a profitable  new  crop. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


Hemp  has  been  grown  in  Wisconsin  for  ten  years.  It  has  been 
found  that  hemp  can  be  grown  very  successfully  in  the  state,  that 
the  climate  and  certain  soils  of  Wisconsin  are  particularly  suited  to 
the  crop,  and  that  the  development  of  labor  saving  machinery  has 
made  the  hemp  industry  one  of  far  reaching  importance.  Pages  3 to  6. 

Several  hundred  acres  must  be  grown  in  a vicinity  to  make  hemp 
production  profitable.  Cooperative  growing  is  necessary.  The  state 
hemp  association  is  stabilizing  the  industry  in  the  state.  Pages  6 to  9. 

Wisconsin  is  the  second  largest  hemp  producing  state  in  the  Union. 

The  principal  centers  of  production  are  Fond  du  Lac,  Green  Lake, 
Dodge,  and  Racine  Counties.  Pages  9 to  13. 

Hemp  fiber  is  a national  necessity.  In  addition  to  its  important  use 
for  wrapping  cords  of  all  kinds,  it  is  now  being  used  for  such  vital 
purposes  as  thread  for  sewing  army  shoes  and  harness,  as  caulking 
in  battle  ships,  and  for  binder  twine.  Pages  13  to  15. 

Hemp  should  be  grown  on  fertile  soil.  Poor  soils  are  not  suitable. 
Hemp  is  not  hard  on  land,  for  it  removes  less  plant  food  than  many 
other  farm  crops.  It  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  and 
is  a successful  crop  for  smothering  quack  grass  and  Canada 
thistles.  Pages  15  to  20. 

Fiber  hemp  does  not  mature  seed  in  Wisconsin;  consequently,  seed 
for  planting  is  principally  obtained  from  Kentucky.  The  seed  weighs 
44  pounds  to  the  bushel  and  49  pounds  are  required  to  plant  an 
acre.  Pages  20  to  24. 

Hemp  is  drilled  in  a well-prepared  seed  bed,  in  the  spring,  and  re- 
quires no  further  attention  until  it  is  ready  to  harvest  in  September. 

Hemp  is  harvested  with  a special  harvesting  machine  which  spreads 
the  stalks  in  a thin  windrow.  After  remaining  in  the  windrow  sev- 
eral weeks,  the  stalks  are  tied  into  bundles,  shocked,  and  stacked. 

Pages  24  to  32. 

The  dry,  cured  hemp  stalks  are  hauled  to  a breaking  mill.  Here 
the  fiber  is  removed  from  the  woody  portion  of  the  stalks.  To  per- 
form this  separation  of  the  fiber,  especially  constructed  and  equipped 
hemp  mills  are  necessary.  Wisconsin  now  has  nine  of  these  mills. 

Pages  32  to  38. 

Large  yields  of  hemp  fiber  are  obtained  in  Wisconsin,  averaging 
1,200  pounds  an  acre.  The  cost  of  producing  the  crop  is-  from  $8 
to  $11  more  an  acre  than  for  small  grain  crops.  The  gross  returns 
average  $75  an  acre.  With  the  advent  of  modern  machinery,  hemp 
can  be  produced  just  as  easily  as  corn.  Hand  labor  is  no  longer  nec- 
essary and  as  a result,  the  hemp  industry  in  Wisconsin  is  firmly  es- 
tablished. Pages  38  to  46. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 

Of  the  42,000  acres  of  hemp  grown  in  the  United  States  in 
1917,  Wisconsin  grew  7,000.  Among  the  several  states  growing 
hemp,  Wisconsin  ranks  second  in  acreage  and  production  of  fiber. 

Large  areas  in  Wisconsin  are  admirably  suited  to  hemp  cul- 
ture, and  a firmly  established  dairy  industry  helps  to  insure  the 
continued  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

The  climate  of  Wisconsin  is  particularly  suited  to  the  produc- 
tion of  dewretted  fiber  of  good  strength  and  high  quality.  The 
fall  months  are  cool  and  moist,  which  makes  it  possible  to  ret 
the  crop  without  scorching  or  over-retting,  an  item  of  vital  im- 
portance in  the  production  of  good  fiber. 

The  yields  of  fiber  obtained  in  this  state  have  been  entirely 
satisfactory,  ranging  from  1,000  to  over  1,500  pounds  to  the 
acre;  the  quality  of  Wisconsin’s  hemp  fiber  is  equal  to  that  pro- 
duced in  any  other  state ; and  our  farmers  have  received  profit- 
able returns  from  the  culture  of  the  crop. 

In  the  improvement  of  machinery  for  handling  the  crop  one 
of  the  most  serious  problems  of  the  industry  is  being  solved. 
Hand  labor  is  now  unnecessary  in  handling  Wisconsin’s  hemp 
crop.  It  is  harvested  by  special  machinery,  and  especially  con- 
structed and  equipped  mills  are  established  in  the  state  for  sepa- 
rating the  fiber  from  the  stalks.  In  fact,  Wisconsin  now  has  over 
70  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  hemp  mills  in  the  United 
States. 

Hemp  has  been  demonstrated  to  be  the  best  smother  crop  for 
assisting  in  the  eradication  of  quack  grass  and  Canada  thistles. 

Characteristics  of  the  Hemp  Plant 

Hemp  is  a woody,  tall-growing,  annual  plant.  It  may  grow 
from  5 to  15  feet  hi£h,  but  in  Wisconsin  the  average  height  is 
from  6 to  9 feet,  although  it  sometimes  reaches  a height  of  over 
10  feet.  Hemp,  of  course,  is  grown  for  the  fiber  that  is  in  its 
stems,  and  in  order  that  the  stems  may  be  long  and  slender  the 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


crop  is  seeded  thickly  like  a small  grain  crop.  As  a result  of 
such  thick  seeding,  the  plants  send  out  practically  no  branches, 
and  all  but  the  top  leaves  drop -early. 

In  hemp,  as  in  animals,  the  sexes  are  separate.  The  flowers 
of  the  male  plants  produce  only  pollen,  and  after  the  pollen  is 

shed  they  wither  and  die ; the 
female  plants  produce  the 
seed,  which  is  fertilized  by 
the  pollen  of  the  male,  and  re- 
main green  and  continue  to 
set  seed  until  killed  by  the 
frost.  The  male  plants  gener- 
ally mature  from  ten  days  to 
several  weeks  earlier  than  the 
female  plants.  As  a usual 
thing  the  male  and  female 
plants  are  about  equal  in 
number. 

The  fiber  from  hemp,  known 
technically  as  a bast  fiber,  is 
obtained  from  the  inner  bark 
of  the  stem.  It  is  a highly 
valuable  product  on  account 
of  its  great  length,  strength, 
pliability,  and  resistance  to 
water  and  general  wear. 


fig.  i.— male  and  female  hemp 

PLANTS 

Hemp  is  the  only  field  crop  in  which  the 
sexes  are  separate.  The  pollen  is  produced 
by  the  male  plants  and  the  seed  formed  by 
the  female  plants.  (Office  of  Fiber  Investi- 
gations, U.  S’.  D.  A.) 

cess  is  known  as  ‘ ‘ breaking,  ’ ’ an( 
rated  from  the  fiber,  is  termed  ‘ ‘ 


To  remove  the  fiber  from 
the  central  woody  portion  of 
the  plants,  it  is  necessary  to 
thoroughly  crush  the  stalks 
when  they  are  dry.  This  pro- 
the  woody  portion,  when  sepa- 

11  T./-1  Cl  ^ 


The  Beginnings  of  Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 

In  1908  six  acres  were  grown  on  the  asylum  farm  at  Mendota 
and  three  acres  on  the  prison  farm  at  Waupun  by  the  Agronomy 
department  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  in  cooperation 
with  the  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  The  results  were  so  promising  that 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry  5 

the  investigational  work  was  rapidly  increased  during  1909, 
1910,  and  1911.  During  these  years  fields  were  grown  at  Men- 
dota,  Waupun,  and  Viroqua.  At  each  of  these  points  good  re- 
sults were  obtained.  At  Waupun  in  1911  the  hemp  was  grown 
on  land  badly  infested  with  quack  grass,  and  in 'spite  of  an  un- 
favorable season  a yield  of  2,100  pounds  of  fiber  to  the  acre  was 
obtained,  and  the  quack  grass  was  practically  destroyed.  The 
results  were  so  encouraging  that  several  neighboring  farmers 
became  interested,  and  in  1912  grew  a total  of  125  acres.  Since 


PIG.  2.— HEMP  FIELD  AT  HARVEST  TIME 
When  seeded  thickly  for  fiber  the  hemp  plants  grow  tall  and  slender. 

that  time  hemp  has  been  grown  in  that  vicinity  every  year  as  a 
commercial  crop.  During  the  last  few  years,  the  industry  has 
extended  chiefly  from  Waupun  to  Brandon  and  westward 
through  the  region  between  Fairwater  and  Markesan. 

To  prove  that  hemp  could  be  grown  in  Wisconsin  was  an  im- 
portant undertaking,  but  the  great  problem  was  to  obtain  power 
machinery  in  order  that  hand  methods  could  be  eliminated. 
When  the  work  with  hemp  was  begun  in  Wisconsin,  there  were 
no  satisfactory  machines  for  harvesting,  spreading,  binding,  or 
breaking.  All  of  these  processes  were  performed  by  hand.  Due 
to  such  methods,  the  hemp  industry  in  the  United  States  had  all 
but  disappeared.  As  it  was  realized  from  the  very  beginning 
of  the  work  in  Wisconsin  that  no  permanent  progress  could  be 
made  so  long  as  it  was  necessary  to  depend  upon  hand  labor, 
immediate  attention  was  given  to  solving  the  problem  of  power 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


machinery.  Nearly  every  kind  of  hemp  machine  was  studied 
and  tested.  The  obstacles  were  great,  but  through  the  coopera- 
tion of  experienced  hemp  men  and  one  large  harvesting  machin- 
ery company,  this  problem  has  been  nearly  solved.  The  hemp 
crop  can  now  6e  handled  entirely  by  machinery. 

Hemp  is  now  on  firm  footing  in  Wisconsin;  the  big  obstacles 
have  been  overcome,  but  the  final  success  of  the  new  industrv 
depends  upon  the  kind  of  judgment  used  in  its  further  develop- 
ment. 


WISCONSIN  HEMP  AS  A WAR  CROP 

The  production  of  hemp  fiber  is  an  item  of  vital  import- 
ance in  carrying  on  the  work  towards  winning  the  war. 
Wisconsin  is  at  the  present  time  the  most  promising  state 
for  the  further  development  of  this  industry. 

Wisconsin  hemp  is  now  used  in  sewing  the  shoes  worn 
by  American  soldiers  ail'd  hemp  fiber  is  at  the  present  time 
the  only  suitable  fiber  available  in  sufficient  quantities  for 
this  purpose.  It  is  also  used  as  cordage  in  ship  building, 
and  hemp  tow  is  the  best  available  material  for  calking  ves- 
sels. During  the  coming  year  hemp  will  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  binder  twine  and  to  eke  out  the  scant  sup- 
ply of  jute  for  covering  cotton  bales. 

L.  H.  DEWEY, 

Fiber  Investigations, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Cooperation  Necessary  in  Hemp  Growing 

Community  interest  is  essential  to  the  successful  production 
of  hemp.  One  farmer  in  a community,  without  the  cooperation 
of  his  neighbors,  wull  fail  if  he  attempts  to  grow  hemp.  Machin- 
ery for  handling  the  crop  is  expensive,  and  without  machinery 
little  or  nothing  can*  be  accomplished.  In  this  state  central 
breaking  mills  are  necessary.  These  mills  cost  from  $10,000  to 
more  than  $50,000,  depending  upon  the  capacity  and  equipment. 
Of  course  a sufficient  acreage  must  be  grown  in  a community  to 
justify  the  erection  of  such  a mill.  The  first  year  there  should 
be  at  least  300  acres  with  reasonable  assurance  of  from  500  to 
750  acres  in  successive  years.  This  means  that  the  production 
of  hemp  must  be  concentrated  in  definite  centers,  to  give  assur- 
ance of  sufficient  raw  material  to  make  the  operation  of  mills 
profitable. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


7 


Establishing  New  Hemp  Centers 

There  is  need  of  much  preliminary  work  before  a new  hemp 
center  can  be  established.  The  success  generally  reported  with 
hemp  in  Wisconsin  has  excited  state-wide  interest  in  the  crop, 
and  as  a result  there  is  danger  of  attempting  to  grow  the  crop 
in  localities  and  under  conditions  where  failure  is  certain. 

Not  all  soils  in  Wisconsin  will  produce  a profitable  crop  of 
hemp ; very  fertile  soils  are  required.  Not  only  should  there 
be  fertile  soil,  but  there  should  be  a sufficient  area  of  such  soil 
to  insure  about  700  acres  of  hemp  each  year  for  an  indefinite 
time.  In  Wisconsin  hemp  should  not  be  grown  for  two  or  more 
years  in  succession  on  the  same  land ; consequently,  there  must 
be  sufficient  good  soil  to  provide  room  for  necessary  rotations. 
If  there  is  any  doubt  about  the  suitability  of  the  soil,  prelimi- 
nary tests  should  be  conducted  the  first  year.  To  do  this  small 
plots  should  be  grown  on  several  farms  in  the  community  and 
the  results  carefully  observed. 

Since  a hemp  mill  is  essential  to  the  establishment  of  a hemp 
center,  a satisfactory  site  for  such  a mill  is  very  important.  Lo- 
cating a mill  in  the  country  several  miles  from  a railway  station 
is  not  to  be  recommended.  When  so  located,  transportation 
becomes  an  expensive  item  and  the  labor  problem  is  made  very 
serious.  About  20  men  are  required  to  operate  a hemp  mill  and 
it  is  difficult  to  obtain  men  who  will  work  in  the  country  and 
even  more  difficult  to  retain  them. 

The  ideal  location  for  a hemp  center  is  a small  town  with  fair 
railroad  facilities,  surrounded  by  fertile  land.  A large  town  is 
not  so  desirable  a location  as  a small  one,  for  too  much  land  is 
occupied  by  the  town,  and  the  farm  land  is  necessarily  far  re- 
moved from  the  mill.  Then,  too,  the  farmers  living  near  large 
. towns  are  not,  as  a rule,  easily  interested  in  a new  industry  and 
have  relatively  little  community  interest. 

The  community,  as  a whole,  must  become  interested  in  growing 
hemp  in  order  to  insure  success.  To  arouse  such  interest,  the 
subject  of  hemp  should  be  thoroughly  discussed  and  as  much 
information  obtained  about  the  crop  as  possible.  If  much  in- 
terest is  shown,  public  meetings  may  be  held  at  which  the  grow- 
ing and  handling  of  hemp  may  be  explained  by  someone  who  un- 
derstands the  subject.  If,  after  careful  consideration,  a consider- 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


able  number  in  the  community  desire  to  undertake  hemp  grow- 
ing, an  estimate  should  be  made  of  the  acreage  that  could  be 
obtained.  If  at  least  300  acres  are  promised,  an  effort  should 
then  be  made  to  obtain  a hemp  mill. 

A central  mill  for  breaking  the  stalks  and  cleaning  the  fiber 
is  the  only  satisfactory  plan.  Wherever  such  mills  have  been 
established,  permanent  progress  has  been  made,  and  where  hemp 
has  been  grown  under  other  arrangements  for  handling 
the  stalks,  dissatisfaction  has  often  resulted.  The  erection  and 
equipment  of  the  mill  may  be  financed  by  outside  capital,  by  a 
local  company,  or  cooperatively  by  the  farmers  of  the  commun- 
ity. The  important  thing  is  that  complete  arrangements  should 
be  made  for  the  establishment  of  the  mill  before  any  acreage  is 
planted. 

It  is  by  such  methods  that  new  hemp  centers  have  been  estab- 
lished. Throughout  the  development  of  the  industry  the  Ex- 
periment Station  has  stood  firm  in  its  belief  that  in  no  case 
should  attempts  be  made  to  establish  new  centers  of  hemp  pro- 
duction until  the  prospective  growers  have  obtained  a general 
knowledge  of  the  essentials  of  producing  the  crop,  know  that 
their  soils  are  suitable,  and  have  made  all  necessary  arrange- 
ments for  the  establishment  of  hemp  mills.  The  Experiment 
Station  is  in  a position  to  assist  in  establishing  new  hemp  cen- 
ters wherever  local  conditions  warrant. 

The  Wisconsin  Hemp  Order 

The  stable  growth  which  the  hemp  industry  has  made  in  Wis- 
consin is  due  considerably  to  organized  effort.  At  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  industry  at  Waupun,  an  organization  known  as 
the  Rock  River  Hemp  Growers’  association  was  formed.  This 
association  was  considerably  responsible  for  guiding  the  new  in-  • 
dustry  through  the  experimental  stage.  After  the  crop  ex- 
panded and  became  of  state-wide  importance,  a state  association 
was  formed.  This  association  is  known  as  the  Wisconsin  Hemp 
Order.  It  was  organized  at  Ripon  on  October  18,  1917,  and  is 
affiliated  with  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Associa- 
tion. The  object  of  the  Hemp  Order  is  to  promote  the  general 
welfare  of  the  hemp  industry  in  the  state.  Its  membership  is 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


9 


composed  of  hemp  growers  and  hemp  mill  operators.  Anyone 
in  the  state  interested  in  the  growing  and  handling  of  hemp  is 
eligible  to  membership. 

S&. 

Where  Hemp  Is  Grown 

In  Wisconsin  hemp  is  grown  chiefly  on  the  dark  prairie  loams 
and,  to  some  extent,  on  the  gray  silt  loams  of  the  timbered  sec- 
tions. The  leading  hemp  producing  counties  are  now  Fond  du 
Lac,  Green  Lake,  Dodge,  and  Racine.  The  principal  towns  around 


FIG.  3.— THE  ACREAGE  OF  HEMP  IN  WISCONSIN 

The  most  extensive  areas  of  hemp  in  Wisconsin  are  on  the  rich  prairie  soils  of  Fond 
du  Lac,  Green  Lake,  and.  Dodge  counties.  The  past  two  years  have  seen  a heavy  in- 
crease in  hemp  growing. 


which  hemp  is  now  grown  are  Waupun,  Brandon,  Fairwater, 
Markesan,  Iron  Ridge,  Union  Grove,  Picketts,  and  Milton.  Small 
acreages  were  grown  in  1917  at  Waterloo,  Brownsville,  Ran- 
dolph, Rosendale,  Fond  du  Lac,  Oak  Center,  Oak  Grove,  and 
Baldwin. 

In  the  United  States,  previous  to  the  Civil  War,  the  chief  cen- 
ters of  hemp  production  were  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and  Illinois. 
From  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  until  1912,  nearly  all  the  hemp 
in  the  United  States  was  grown  in  Kentucky.  At  the  present 
time  (1918),  hemp  is  grown  for  fiber  in  Kentucky,  Wisconsin, 
California,  North  Dakota,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Minnesota,  South  Da- 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


kota,  Michigan,  Kansas,  Iowa,  and  Illinois.  Of  these  states  the 
most  important  are  Kentucky,  Wisconsin,  and  California. 

Hemp  is  a native  of  China,  but  has  been  widely  distributed 
into  nearly  all  temperate  and  semitemperate  countries.  It  is 
now  grown  in  Russia,  China,  Japan,  Hungary,  Prance,  Chile, 
Turkey,  India,  Arabia,  Africa,  Canada,  and  the  United  States. 
Of  these  the  principal  countries  producing  hemp  fiber  are  Rus- 
sia, Italy,  Japan,  China,  and  the  United  States. 


FIG.  4.— WHERE  HEMP  IS  GROWN  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Wisconsin  ranks  next  to  Kentucky  in  the  production  of  hemp. 


Russia,  before  the  war,  produced  many  hundreds  of  tons  of 
hemp  fiber  and  was  the  source  from  which  America  obtained  a 
large  percentage  of  her  imported  supply. 

Italy  has  been  a very  important  source  of  hemp  fiber  for 
American  mills,  but  since  the  war  both  the  Russian  and  Italian 
supplies  have  been  greatly  reduced. 

Japan  produces  a considerable  quantity  of  hemp  fiber,  but 
very  little  for  export  as  rough  fiber.  Several  varieties  of  hemp 
grown  in  Japan  are  very  satisfactory  for  fiber  production  in 
the  United  States,  according  to  trials  made  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  but  representatives  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin Experiment  Station  have  found  that  they  will  not  mature 
seed  in  this  climate. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


11 


In  China  hemp  is  grown  both  for  birdseed  and  for  fiber,  bnt 
the  fiber  produced  is  nearly  all  consumed  by  the  Chinese  people, 
and  consequently  very  little  is  exported.  The  leading  varieties 
of  American  hemp,  such  as  the  so-called  Kentucky  hemp,  had 
their  origin  in  China.  Birdseed  types  of  hemp  are  grown  in 
Manchuria  and  Chosen,  consequently  seed  from  those  countries 
should  not  be  obtained  for  planting  in  this  country. 

Acreage  and  Production  of  Hemp 

Accurate  data  on  the  world’s  acreage  and  production  of  hemp 
cannot  be  obtained,  but  fairly  accurate  figures  on  the  acreage, 
production,  and  consumption  of  raw  hemp  fiber  in  the  United 
States  are  available. 


Table  I. — Imports,  Production,  and  Consumption  of  Hemp  in  the 
United  States  1876 — '1917,  in  Tons 


Averages  by  years 

Imports 

Production 

Total  used 

1876-1880 

459 

7,396 

7,855 

1881  1885 

5,393 

5,421 

10,814 

1886-1890 

10,427 

8,270 

18,607 

1891  1895 

4,962 

5,631 

10,593 

1896-1900 

4,985 

5,177 

10,162 

1901-1905 

4,577 

6,175 

10,752 

1906-1910 

6,375 

5,150 

11,525 

1911-1913 

5,982 

5,100 

11,082 

1914 

8,822 

1,000 

9,882 

1915 

5,310 

4,200 

9,510 

1916 

6,506 

9,390 

15,896 

1917 

6,000 

20,600 

26,600 

It  is  evident  that  the  amount  of  hemp  produced  in  the  United 
States  previous  to  1913  was  approximately  the  same  each  year, 
averaging  annually  about  6,000  tons.  In  1914  there  was  a ma- 
terial reduction,  and  even  though  there  were  several  states  other 
than  Kentucky  in  which  hemp  was  grown,  the  total  production 
was  only  1,000  tons.  In  1915  and  1916  there  was  a decided  in- 
crease, and  in  1917,  the  acreage  was  larger  than  in  any  previous 
year  since  the  Civil  War.  Imports,  it  will  be  seen,  have  re- 
mained practically  the  same  each  year,  even  during  the  present 


war. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


PIG.  5 —IMPORTS  OP  HEMP  PIBER  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES 
About  6,000  tons  have  been  imported  annually — chiefly  from  Russia  and  Italy. 


The  acreage  of  hemp  in  the  United  States  has  varied  from 
year  to  year  in  about  the  same  degree  as  has  the  production  of 
fiber.  Acreage  in  different  states  is  shown  in  Table  II. 

The  41,000  acres  of  hemp  in  the  United  States  in  1917  was  an 
increase  of  more  than  100  per  cent  over  that  of  1916,  the  greatest 
increase  of  any  year  in  the  history  of  the  American  hemp  indus- 
try. 


Production  of  hemp  in  the  United  States 

'Years 

1076- I0tt0 
IASI  • IA  AS 

1 2 

1 A 

$ 

' t 

Tho 

s 

usar 
> / 

ids 

0 

of  t 
1 1 

ons 
2 1 

3 / 

4 / 

J / 

6 1 

/ 

1 

0 

IASS ' 1A90 
IA9I  IA95 
1096-1900 
1901  • 19  05 
1906-1910 
1911  -1913 
1914 
1916 

1916 

1917 

= 

PIG.  . 6.— HEMP  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

In  1917  the  increase  in  the  hemp  acreage  was  greater  than  in  any  previous  year  of  the 
American  hemp  industry. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


13 


Previous  to  1915  the  great  bulk  of  the  American  hemp  acreage 
was  in  Kentucky,  but  during  1915,  1916  and  1917  the  acreage 
in  other  states  has  been  rapidly  increasing. 


Table  II. — Distribution  of  Hemp  Acreage  in  the  United  States 


States 

1915 

1916 

1917 

Kentucky  

6,500 

400 

13,500 

1,200 

1,600 

40 

18,000 

7.000 

5.000 
5,000 
2,400 
1,500 

500 

Wisconsin  

California  

600 

North  Dakota  

Indiana  

500 

800 

Ohio  

400 

1,000 

Minnesota  

South  Dakota  

40 

500 

Michigan  

400 

Kansas  

300 

Iowa  

500 

Illinois  

100 

Total 

8,400 

18,780 

41,200 

It  is  evident  that  there  has  been  a tremendous  increase  in 
acreage  during  the  last  three  years,  especially  during  1917.  Just 
how  permanent  this  large  increase  will  be,  it  is  impossible  to 
forecast,  but  in  those  states  where  natural  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate  are  favorable  and  where  thorough  preparations  have 
been  made  for  growing  and  handling  the  crop,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  hemp  production  is  a permanent  industry. 

Uses  of  Hemp 

Hemp  is  grown  for  its  seed,  for  medicine,  and  for  its  fiber. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  important  as  a fiber  crop  only. 

At  present,  the  principal  use  of  hemp  fiber  in  the  United 
States  is  in  manufacturing  “ commercial  twines”,  or  wrapping 
cords.  It  is  not  used  to  any  great  extent  for  manufacturing 
ropes  and  binder  twine.  Minor  uses  of  hemp  are  for  ropes  and 
lines  in  the  navy  and  as  sewing  thread  for  shoes  and  harness. 

The  hemp  tow  is  used  to  a considerable  extent  as  oakum  for  the 
caulking  of  ships,  and  the  packing  in  pumps,  engines,  and  other 
machinery. 

The  present  uses  of  hemp  are  limited  primarily  because  there 
has  not  been  enough  of  the  fiber  produced  in  this  country  to 
satisfy  even  the  demand  for  commercial  twines,  and  consequently 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


there  was  no  occasion  for  adapting  machinery  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  other  products  from  hemp  fiber.  Previous  to  the  short- 
age of  hemp  fiber  it  was  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a great 
number  of  products,  including  bagging  for  cotton  bales  and  for 
numerous  other  purposes,  sacking  of  all  kinds,  binder  twines, 
carpets,  rugs,  seines,  nets,  fish  lines,  sewing  thread  of  all  kinds, 
warp  for  carpets,  and  for  such  fabrics  as  crash  toweling,  rough 
sheeting,  and  rough  clothing. 

Since  Yucatan  sisal  has  become  so  expensive,  a great  deal  of 
attention  is  now  being  given  to  experimenting  with  hemp  in 
manufacturing  binder  twine.  The  success  of  such  efforts  can  not 4 
be  forecasted,  but  if  it  be  found  that  hemp  can  be  used  for  that 
purpose  hemp  production  will  be  stabilized. 

The  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  the  ultimate  fibers  of 
hemp  are  almost  identical  with  flax.  By  the  simple  mechanical 
process  of  hackling,  now  being  done  by  very  efficient  power- 
driven  machines,  hemp  fiber  is  reduced  to  a condition  closely  re- 
sembling the  coarser  grades  'of  dewretted  flax  and  may  be  spun 
on  flax-spinning  machinery.  It  is  not  quite  so  fine  as  flax  and 
can  not  be  used  economically  to  make  the  finer  yarns  commonly 
made  of  flax  fiber,  but  it  is  suitable  for  the  coarser  yarns  and  in 
the  present  emergency,  with  available  supplies  of  flax  and  jute 
greatly  exceeded  by  the  demand,  the  better  grades  of  hemp  may 
be  used  more  extensively  in  place  of  flax,  while  the  cheaper 
tows  should  make  a very  acceptable  substitute  for  jute. 

There  are  certain  uses  for  which  hemp  is  particularly  suited 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  these  uses  should  not  be  developed. 
Hemp  has  great  tensile  strength  and  is  very  resistant  to  water 
and  to  wear.  Hence,  it  is  particularly  suited  for  cordage  of  all 
kinds,  for  lines  and  ropes  used  in  all  shipping  activities,  for  can- 
vases used  in  shipping  and  wherever  great  strength  and  resistance 
to  water  are  required,  for  such  threads  as  shoe  thread  and  sack- 
ing thread,  where  strength  is  more  important  than  fineness,  for 
sewing  coarse  wearing  apparel,  for  trimmings  in  millinery,  for 
fastening  buttons,  for  the  more  strongly  and  finely  woven  types 
of  sacking  such  as  grain  sacks,  sugar  sacks,  and  the  like,  for  the 
warp  of  carpets,  for  the  manufacture  of  service  carpets,  rugs, 
hallway  rugs,  and  all  forms  of  floor  covering,  and  for  manufac- 
turing the  more  coarsely  woven  products  such  as  toweling,  cur- 
tains, table  cloths,  and  other  textiles. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


15 


Improving  Hemp 

Wisconsin  is  in  great  need  of  a variety  of  good  fiber  hemp  that 
will  mature  seed  in  this  climate.  With  that  object  in  view,  the 
Agronomy  Department  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station 
in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture be’gan  breeding  experiments  with  hemp  in  1912.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  develop  by  selection  an  early  maturing  strain 
from  Minnesota  No.  8.  A more  uniform  fiber  type  was  ob- 
tained so  far  as  general  characters  were  concerned,  but  little  or 
no  progress  was  made  in  increasing  early  maturity,  although  the 
selection  was  continued  without  interruption  for  five  years. 

Since  1916  work  with  selecting  and  improving  hemp  has  been 
materially  increased.  The  results  thus  far  obtained  indicate 
that  the  various  strains  or  varieties  from  Italy  are  the  most  prom- 
ising for  Wisconsin.  The  Italian  variety  known  as  the  Ferrara 
has  been  grown  for  two  years  and  many  selections  made. 
Enough  seed  was  obtained  from  the  1917  plots  to  plant  five  acres 
of  fiber  hemp.  This  seed  was  sent  out  this  spring  (1918)  for  a 
commercial  trial.  If  it  produces  a satisfactory  yield  and  quality 
of  fiber,  the  station  will  rapidly  increase  the  supply  of  seed  of 
that  variety  and  will  intensify  the  work  of  selection. 

Another  strain  of  hemp  obtained  from  the  United  States  Office 
of  Fiber  Investigations  has  shown  much  promise.  It  is  the  re- 
sult of  a cross  between  the  Ferrara  (Italian)  and  the  Minnesota 
No.  8.  By  another  year  enough  seed  of  that  variety  will  be 
available  for  distribution  over  the  state  for  a commercial  test. 

For  the  present,  Wisconsin  must  depend  upon  other  states  for 
hempseed,  but  it  is  believed  possible,  from  the  results  thus  far 
obtained,  to  discover  or  develop  by  breeding  a desirable  straiu 
that  will  mature  seed  in  this  state. 

Climate  for  Hemp 

Hemp  is  adapted  to  the  humid  sections  of  the  temperate  zones, 
but  certain  varieties,  such  as  the  birdseed  forms,  grow  exten- 
sively rather  far  north  in  Russia  and  mature  in  60  to  90  days. 
Hemp  for  seed  requires  approximately  five  months  of  favorable 
weather  to  mature,  which  necessitates  a growing  season  of  175 
days  or  more.  Hemp  for  fiber  will  mature  in  four  months, 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


which  means  that  so  far  as  length  of  season  is  concerned,  hemp 
for  fiber  can  be  grown  practically  anywhere  in  the  United  States. 

Hemp  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  semitropical  regions  for  oil  or 
drugs,  but  its  natural  habitat  is  in  regions  of  temperate  climate, 
and  it  is  not  grown  for  fiber  outside  of  the  temperate  zone. 

Humid  conditions  are  necessary  for  the  production  of  hemp 
fiber.  Seed  can  be  matured  to  some  extent  in  regions  of 
sparse  rainfall,  but  the  regions  in  the  United  States  where  hemp 
has  been  successfully  grown  for  fiber  have  a rainfall  of  30  inches 
or  more  annually. 

The  climate  in  Wisconsin  is  ideal  for  the  production  of  dew- 
retted  hemp.  The  falls  are  cool  and  fairly  moist  so  that  the 
green  hemp  can  be  spread  out  for  retting  as  soon  as  it  is  harv- 
ested without  any  danger  of  its  being  scorched  or  otherwise  in- 
jured by  the  sun.  As  a result,  when  reasonably  well  handled, 
Wisconsin  fiber  is  generally  soft  and  pliable,  and  possesses  con 
siderable  “ nature,’ ’ and  it  has  been  in  great  demand  among 
manufacturers. 

Soils  Best  for  Hemp 

Soils  suited  for  hemp  are  best  determined  by  a study  of  those 
that  have  most  successfully  produced  the  crop.  The  section  of 
the  United  States  that  has  produced  hemp  most  continuously  and 
successfully  is  that  part  of  central  Kentucky  generally  known 
as  the  1 1 Blue  Grass  Region.  ’ ’ While  hemp  raising  in  Kentucky 
is  not  entirely  restricted  to  the  Blue  Grass  Region  proper,  yet  in 
the  main  the  hemp  areas  are  underlain  with  highly  phosphatic 
limestone.  The  soil,  derived  from  the  weathering  of  the  lime- 
stone, is  a brown  loam,  varying  in  color  from  yellowish  to  reddish 
and  very  high  in  phosphorus.  The  chief  source  of  organic  mat- 
ter has  been  and  still  is  the  roots  and  leaves  accumulating  from 
continuous  growth  of  blue  grass. 

Every  successful  hemp  grower  in  Kentucky  recognizes  the 
great  importance  of  preceding  hemp  with  blue  grass  for  several 
years.  The  general  practice  is  to  seed  to  blue  grass  and  use  for 
pasture  for  a rather  long  period,  ranging  from  three  to  ten  years 
or  more.  This  blue  grass  sod  is  then  plowed  in  the  fall,  pre- 
vious to  planting  hemp,  and  is  devoted  to  hemp  continuously 
for  three  or  more  years.  In  this  way  the  organic  matter  so  es- 
sential to  profitable  hemp  production  is  obtained.  The  soils  of 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


17 


the  Kentucky  hemp  region  are  naturally  very  fertile  in  available 
plant  food;  so  fertile,  in  fact,  that  the  application  of  mineral 
fertilizers  gives  little  or  no  increased  production  in  any  farm 
crop.  It  is  because  of  this  great  amount  of  fertility  that  they 
are  so  well  adapted  to  hemp  production. 

Among  the  states  successful  in  hemp  production  before  the 
Civil  War,  Missouri  ranked  second  to  Kentucky.  The  chief  soil 
types  upon  which  hemp  was  grown  in  Missouri  were  the  Knox 
silt  loam  and  the  Marshall  silt  loam.  The  Marshall  silt  loam  is 
a prairie  soil,  high  in  organic  matter,  much  like  the  Wisconsin 
prairie  soils.  Both  of  these  types  are  very  fertile  and  easily 
worked,  and  originally  high  in  calcium. 

In  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Michigan  the  hemp  acreages  are  prac- 
tically limited  to  muck  soils.  These  soils  are  well  decomposed, 
well  drained,  and  fairly  deep.  They  are  generally  underlain 
with  clay  and  gravel.  Hemp  can  be  grown  on  the  better  forms 
of  muck  and  other  marsh  soils,  but  light,  raw  peat  and  any 
marsh  soils  poorly  drained  or  underlain  with  sand  are  not  suit- 
able for  hemp. 

In  California  hemp  is  chiefly  grown  near  Stockton,  on  delta 
lands.  These  soils  are  alluvial  formations  of  great  depths,  very 
fertile  and  well  drained. 

In  Wisconsin  the  extension  of  the  hemp  industry  has  been 
largely  on  the  Carrington  loams,  particularly  the  Carrington 
silt  loam.  This  very  fertile  prairie  soil  is  of  limestone  origin 
and  particularly  high  in  organic  matter.  The  Clyde,  or  marsh 
border  soils,  are  even  better  than  the  Carrington,  when  properly 
drained,  as  they  are  very  rich  in  organic  matter.  The  Miami 
soils  are  naturally  deficient  in  organic  matter,  and  as  a result 
are  not  as  well  suited  to  hemp  as  are  the  Carrington  and  Clyde, 
but  where  ample  applications  of  manure  have  been  used,  the 
Miami  soils  have  produced  splendid  yields  of  hemp. 

No  tests  have  been  conducted  on  the  Knox  soils  of  Wisconsin 
hut  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  well  suited  to 
the  crop.  On  such  soils,  in  most  sections,  erosion  would  be  an 
important  problem  in  growing  hemp.  Manure  would  also  be 
essential. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  it  is  useless  to  attempt  hemp  growing 
on  soils  lacking  in  fertility.  As  a general  rule,  soil  that  will 
produce  a good  crop  of  corn  will  produce  a good  yield  of  hemp. 

2 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


Fertile  silt  and  clay  loams  which  have  been  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  manure  are  the  best  for  hemp ; heavy  clay  flats,  clay 
hills  and  outcrops,  sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  raw  or  shallow 
peat  underlain  with  sand,  and  all  poorly  drained  soils  are  en- 
tirely unsuited.  Marsh  soils  will  give  fairly  good  yields,  pro- 
vided they  are  well  decomposed,  well  drained,  and  underlain 
with  clay.  At  present  it  appears  best  to  avoid  marsh  soils  and 
plant  hemp  only  on  the  better  classes  of  silt  loams.  The  soil  that 
has  been  given  an  ample  application  of  manure  within  the  last 
two  years  is  in  the  best  condition  for  hemp.  The  importance  of 
manure  for  a successful  crop  can  not  be  overestimated. 

Soils  for  hemp  must  be  rich  in  fertility,  full  of  organic  matter 
liberally  supplied  with  manure,  and  thoroughly  drained.  Never 
plant  hemp  on  soils  that  have  been  run  down  by  poor  farming, 
soils  that  have  been  in  timothy  sod  for  several  years,  soils  that 
are  low  and  wet,  or  soils  improperly  prepared. 

While  hemp  will  not  increase  soil  fertility,  there  is  no  question 
but  that  it  will  remove  less  plant  food  than  many  other  annual 
crops  and  that  it  leaves  the  soil  in  a good,  workable  condition. 
Although  hemp  requires  a fertile  soil  for  its  profitable  growth, 
it  is  not  ‘ 4 hard  on  the  land.  ’ ’ 

That  hemp  may  produce  a good  fiber  it  is  necessary  for  it  to 
make  a rapid  growth  and  to  attain  a height  of  six  to  ten  feet 
in  100  to  130  daysL  To  insure  such  growth  plenty  of  readily 
available  food  materials  must  be  present,  but  most  of  these  ma- 
terials are  returned  to  the  soil.  In  hemp  40  per  cent  of  the  fer- 
tilizing materials  removed  from  the  soil  are  in  the  leaves  ‘and 
roots  and  practically  all  of  this  is  returned.  Of  the  60  per  cent 
in  the  stalks,  the  greater  proportion  is  returned  wrhile  the  hemp 
stalks  are  in  the  swath. 

Hemp  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  Its  long 
tap  roots  penetrate  to  considerable  depths  and  loosen  the  under 
soil  layers,  and  the  dense  growth  of  leaves  also  shades  the  soil 
throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  growing  season  and  pre- 
vents baking  and  crusting  of  the  soil  surface.  Every  grower 
of  hemp  fiber  says  that  hemp  leaves  the  soil  in  such  condition 
that  succeeding  crops  make  better  yields. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


19 


Grow  Hemp  in  Rotation 

To  assist  in  maintaining  fertility  of  the  soil,  hemp  should 
be  grown  in  rotation  with  other  crops.  In  deciding  on  the  place 
hemp  should  occupy  in  the  rotation,  it  is  important  to  remember 
that  hemp  requires  an  abundant  supply  of  evenly  distributed 
organic  matter ; that  an  even  growth  of  the  hemp  stalks,  both  in 
height  and  in  diameter,  is  very  important;  that  soils  with  an 
irregular  distribution  of  fertility  should  be  avoided. 

In  Wisconsin,  the  most  satisfactory  place  for  hemp  in  the  ro- 
tation is  ^fter  corn.  The  corn  should  have  been  preceded  with 
clover  sod,  well  manured,  and  plowed  in  the  fall.  Hemp  will 
also  follow  to  good  advantage  potatoes,  cabbage,  or  any  other 
cultivated  crop.  Where  it  is  impracticable  to  precede  hemp 
with  a cultivated  crop,  it  may  be  seeded  on  clover  sod  which 
was  evenly  manured  and  plowed  in  the  fall.  The  chief  objec- 
tion to  planting  hemp  after  clover  is  that  the  fertility  is  likely 
to  be  irregular,  especially  when  coarse  manure  has  been  applied 
to  the  clover.  This  irregularity  in  the  fertility  will  produce 
an  uneven  growth  of  hemp,  which  is  very  undesirable.  Good 
results  have  been  obtained,  however,  by  following  clover  with 
hemp,  when  proper  precautions  were  taken  in  spreading  manure 
evenly  and  in  plowing  and  thoroughly  working  the  soil. 

Hemp  should  not  follow  timothy  meadow,  blue  grass  sod,  nor 
pasture  in  Wisconsin.  Neither  should  hemp  follow  any  small- 
grain  crop,  unless  the  soil  is  very  well  supplied  with  manure. 

Hemp  will  leave  the  soil  in  splendid  physical  condition  for 
any  spring  sown  small  grain.  It  also  leaves  the  land  relatively 
free  from  all  kinds  of  weeds  and  consequently  it  is  a good  crop 
to  precede  sugar  beets  or  canning  peas,  for  these  crops  especially 
require  a clean  seed  bed. 

The  following  rotations  have  been  found  applicable  to  Wiscon- 
sin conditions : 

Four  Year  Rotation 

Small  spring  grain  crop  (seeded  down  to  clover) 

Clover  for  hay  and  pasture  (manured  and  fall  plowed) 

Corn,  potatoes,  or  similar  crops 

Hemp  (then  back  to  small  grain  and  clover) 

In  this  rotation  many  growers  include  timothy  with  the  clover. 
There  is  no  objection  to  this  if  the  land  is  not  left  to  sod  more 
than  one  year. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


Three  Year  Rotation 

Small-grain  crop  (seeded  to  clover) 

Clover  (manured  and  fall  plowed) 

Hemp  (then  back  to  small  grain  and  clover) 

In  this  rotation  considerable  attention  should  be  given  to 
using  well-pulverized  manure  and  to  spreading  it  evenly.  The 
clover  sod  should  be  worked  thoroughly  in  the  spring  to  insure  a 
compact,  smooth  seed  bed. 


FIG.  7. — GROW  ONLY  THE  FIBER  VARIETIES  IN  WISCONSIN 

The  tall  and  open  branched  type  is  grown  for  fiber.  The  short  densely  branched  bird- 
seed type  should  be  avoided. 

Varieties  of  Hemp 

Hemp  that  is  suitable  for  fiber  does  not  mature  seed  in  Wis- 
consin; consequently  no  Wisconsin  varieties  have  been  estab- 
lished. A great  deal  of  attention  is  being  given  by  the  Experi- 
ment Station  to  the  development  of  a variety  that  will  mature 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


21 


seed  in  this  state  and  some  progress  has  been  made.  The  hemp 
that  has  been  grown  so  far  comes  from  Kentucky  seed. 

There  are  three  fairly  distinct  types  of  hemp : that  grown  for 
hber,  that  for  birdseed  and  oil,  and  that  for  drugs.  The  fiber 
type  is  comparatively  tall  and  slender,  sparsely  branched,  with 
long  internodes  and  distinctly  hollow  stems.  The  birdseed  type 
is  short,  greatly  branched,  with  short  internodes,  and  nearly 
solid  stems.  The  drug  type  is  similar  to  the  birdseed  type,  bat 
the  leaves  of  the  female  plants  are  more  waxy  or  resinous,  the 
foliage  more  dense,  and  the  stems  more  nearly  solid.  Both  the 
birdseed  type  and  the  drug  type  are  unsuited  for  fiber  produc- 
tion and  should  not  be  grown  in  Wisconsin. 

The  varieties  of  fiber  hemp  grown  in  the  United  States  are 
known  largely  by  the  name  of  the  country  or  place  from  which 
the  seed  was  originally  obtained.  As  a result  we  have  such 
names  as  Chinese  hemp,  Japanese  hemp,  Russian  hemp  and 
American  or  Kentucky  hemp.  More  specific  names  have  been 
given  to  varieties  tested  and  developed  in  the  United  States. 
The  more  important  of  these  are  Minnesota  No.  8,  Keijo,  Mal- 
anyu,  Hankow — all  of  Chinese  origin ; Ferrara  or  Bologna,  Car- 
magnola,  Itamington,  Carymington,  Ferramington — all  of  Ital- 
ian origin;  Tochigi  and  Hiroschima — both  of  Japanese  origin. 

From  tests  made  of  hemp  from  practically  every  country*  it 
is  evident  that  the  best  fiber  producing  kinds  are  from  China, 
Japan,  Hungary,  and  Italy.  It  should  Re  remembered,  however, 
that  not  all  hemp  in  those  countries  produces  good  fiber,  for  there 
are  undesirable  varieties  grown  in  each  of  those  countries.  Since 
the  desirable  fiber  varieties,  from  China,  Japan,  and  Hungary,  re- 
quire from  150  to  160  days  of  favorable  weather  to  mature  seed 
they  will  not  produce  seed  in  commercial  quantities  in  Wisconsin. 
Of  the  early-maturing  varieties,  those  from  Italy  are  the  only 
promising  ones.  They  will  mature  seed  in  Wisconsin  in  from 
130  to  140  days,  being  fully  20  days  earlier  than  the  late-matur- 
ing varieties.  Generally,  hemp  from  Russia,  India,  France, 
Chile,  Turkey,  Arabia,  and  Africa  is  not  desirable  for  fiber 
production. 

Until  a more  satisfactory  type  or  variety  of  hemp  is  obtained, 
the  Wisconsin  growers  should  use  the  Chinese  type,  commonly 
known  as  Kentucky  or  Minnesota  No.  8.  As  a rule,  foreign  im- 

♦Tests  made  by  the  U.  S.  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


portations  should  be  strictly  avoided.  Occasional  lots  from 
foreign  countries  might  be  very  satisfactory,  but  the  chances  of 
getting  the  wrong  type  are  very  great.  No  one  can  tell  by  ex- 
amining hempseed  to  what  type  or  variety  it  belongs. 


Wisconsin  Uses  Kentucky  Seed 


Since  the  Civil  War  the  production  of  hempseed  has  been  al- 
most entirely  limited  to  the  bottoms  of  the  Kentucky  River  and 

its  tributaries.  In  Kentucky 
some  upland  hempseed  is  pro- 
duced each  year,  but  its  pro- 
duction is  generally  unprofit- 
able and  the  amount  grown  of 
little  consequence.  In  1917 
several  thousand  bushels  of 
seed  were  produced  outside  of 
Kentucky,  principally  in  Cali- 
fornia, Ohio,  and  Kansas. 
While  hemp  for  fiber  is  a suc- 
cessful crop  in  the  extreme 
northern  states  and  in  south- 
ern Canada,  hempseed  seem- 
ingly must  be  produced  in 
sections  farther  south. 

That  Wisconsin  farmers 
must  depend  upon  Kentucky 
River  bottom  growers  to  pro- 
duce seed  is  most  unfortunate, 
and  before  a dependable  sup- 
ply of  seed  can  be  obtained  it 
will  be  necessary  to  have  it  produced  elsewhere,  unless  there  is  a 
radical  change  in  the  manner  of  handling  and  selling  seed  in 
Kentucky. 

During  the  last  few  years  the  price  of  hempseed  has  been  un- 
stable. This  condition  of  the  market  has  not  been  due  to  a 
lack  of  seed  to  supply  the  demand,  for  each  year  several  thou- 
sand bushels  of  seed  have  been  held  over,  but  it  has  been  largely 
due  to  a complete  lack  of  organization  and  to  the  activity  of  seed 
speculators.  The  price  that  the  grower  of  fiber  has  been  com- 
pelled to  pay  for  seed  has  often  been  unreasonable,  and  such 


FIG.  8.— A'  SHOOK  OF  SEED  HEMP 

Hemp  when  grown  for  seed  is  harvested  by 
hand  and  placed  in  shocks  similar  to  corn. 
(Office  of  Fiber  Investigations,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


23 


prices,  together  with  the  very  unstable  condition  of  the  market, 
are  seriously  injuring  the  hemp  industry,  not  only  in  Wisconsin 
but  throughout  the  whole  United  States.  The  future  safety  and 
permanency  of  the  industry  in  Wisconsin  demands  that  a new 
and  dependable  source  of  seed  be  obtained.  The  Experiment 
Station  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Office  of  Fiber 
Investigations  has  investigated  prospective  sections  for  establish- 
ing new  centers  of  hempseed  production  and  such  work  will 
be  vigorously  promoted. 


FIG.  9.— THRESHING  HEMP  SEED 

In  Kentucky,  where  practically  all  American  hemp  seed  is  produced,  threshing  is  done 
by  beating  out  the  seed  by  hand.  (Office  of  Fiber  Investigations,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

How  Hemp  Seed  Is  Grown 

The  growing  of  hempseed  is  an  entirely  different  business 
than  the  growing  of  hemp  for  fiber;  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances the  same  crop  can  not  be  used  for  both  purposes.  When 
grown  for  fiber,  the  crop  is  harvested  before  the  seed  is  mature. 
When  grown  for  seed,  the  hemp  is  planted  in  hills  or  wide  rows 
and  cultivated.  The  plants  then  form  many  branches  and  be- 
come so  coarse  and  woody  that  they  are  practically  useless  for 
fiber. 

Hemp  for  seed  is  planted  in  the  spring,  on  fertile  soil, 
in  hills  four  to  five  feet  apart  each  way.  The  planting  is  done 
by  hand,  ten  to  fifteen  seeds  to  the  hill,  and  the  seed  covered 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


with  the  foot  or  with  a hoe.  Hemp  is  cultivated  the  same  as 
corn.  When  the  plants  are  six  to  eight  inches  high,  they  are 
thinned  down  to  from  four  to  six  plants  in  a hill.  In  thinning, 
the  plants  are  usually  pulled  by  hand.  After  thinning,  cultiva- 
tion is  continued  until  the  plants  become  too  large. 

In  the  latter  part  of  August  (in  Kentucky)  the  male  plants 
are  removed,  for  they  are  of  no  value  after  they  have  shed  their 
pollen,  and  if  allowed  to  remain  they  occupy  room  which  is 
needed  for  the  full  development  of  the  female  (seed)  plants. 
When  the  seed  is  sufficiently  ripe,  it  is  cut  by  hand  and  shocked. 

After  the  shocks  are  completely  cured,  and  when  the  weather 
is  very  dry,  an  entire  shock  is  thrown  on  a large  canvas  spread 
on  the  ground,  and  the  seed  and  chaff  beaten  out  with  sticks. 
Seed  threshed  in  such  a manner  is  full  of  dirt,  leaves,  and  stems, 
and  requires  thorough  recleaning,  for  which  both  hand  and 
power  fanning  mills  are  used. 

The  average  yield  of  hemp  seed  in  Kentucky  is  estimated  at 
16  bushels  an  acre.  A bushel  of  seed  weighs  44  pounds. 

Provide  Level  Seed  Bed 

Hemp  requires  a deep,  firm  seed  bed,  with  the  surface  thor- 
oughly pulverized.  Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  ob- 
taining a smooth  surface  so  that  the  crop  may  be  cut  low  and 
even.  Fiber  hemp  should  be  cut  very  close  to  the  ground,  for 
the  higher  the  stubble  the  greater  the  loss  of  fiber.  Failure  to 
provide  a level  surface  means  a considerable  less. 

In  some  sections,  the  soil  bakes  readily  and  may  seriously  in- 
terfere with  obtaining  a good  stand  of  hemp,  for  the  young 
plants  are  very  tender  and  are  unable  to  force  their  way  through 
a heavily  crusted  surface.  This  condition  cannot  be  remedied 
by  harrowing  just  as  the  plants  are  coming  up.  On  such  soils  it 
is  necessary  previous  to  planting  hemp  to  provide  organic  matter 

the  surface.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  a top  dressing  of 
finely  pulverized  manure,  or  by  back-setting  sod. 

In  preparing  soil  for  hemp,  fall  plowing  is  preferable ; other- 
wise, plow  as  early  in  the  spring  as  conditions  will  permit.  The 
land  should  be  thoroughly  worked  with  the  disk  or  harrow  in  the 
spring.  A thorough  harrowing  should  be  given  just  before  the 
hemp  is  seeded  to  break  up  any  crust  that  has  formed  and  to 
destroy  weeds  which  have  germinated. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


25 


Seed  Broadcast  or  Drill 

t 

Hemp  is  seeded  thickly,  either  broadcast  or  with  a grain  drill. 
In  broadcasting  the  work  can  be  done  either  by  hand  or  with  a 
broadcast  seeder.  Drills  that  plant  in  rows  six  inches  apart  or 
less  are  preferred  to  the  eight  inch  drills.  Any  common  grain 
drill  will  do  satisfactory  work,  but  the  special  four  inch  drills 
made  for  grass  seeding  are  very  good.  There  is  no  advantage 
in  cross  drilling ; drilling  one  way  provides  just  as  good  a stand. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  avoid  too  deep  planting.  The 
hemp  seeds  are  very  small  and  the  young  plants  are  very  tender. 
Plant  just  deep  enough  that  the  seeds  may  be  covered ; covering 
more  than  one  inch  in  any  soil  is  unsafe. 

The  amount  of  seed  needed  varies  from  a little  less  than  three 
pecks  to  a bushel  an  acre.  In  Kentucky  three  pecks  are  suffici- 
ent. Some  growers  in  Wisconsin  have  obtained  very  satisfac- 
tory stands  from  planting  only  three  pecks,  but  averaging  the 
experience  of  growers  in  Wisconsin,  40  pounds  an  acre  is  suffi- 
cient to  insure  a good  stand.  When  hemp  is  planted  too  thickly, 
a great  many  short,  small  plants  result.  These  plants  are  col- 
lectively called  undergrowth.  If  the  hemp  is  planted  too  thinly, 
the  plants  become  coarse  and  uneven  in  growth.  Generally,  it 
is  better  to  plant  a little  too  thickly  and  have  some  undergrowth 
than  to  plant  too  thinly  and  have  coarse,  uneven  plants. 

Hemp  for  fiber  is  planted  relatively  early  in  the  spring,  before 
May  10  in  Wisconsin.  The  usual  practice  is  to  plant  after  the 
seeding  of  small  grain  and  before  corn  planting.  Light  frosts 
and  freezes  do  not  seriously  injure  hemp  in  the  spring,  and  it  is 
preferable  to  plant  early  and  allow  the  crop  to  be  subjected  to 
spring  frosts  and  freezes  rather  than  plant  late  and  shorten  the 
time  for  harvesting  and  retting  in  the  fall.  Where  a large  acre- 
age is  planted  by  one  grower  it  is  a good  plan  not  to  seed  the 
hemp  all  at  one  time.  Instead,  part  should  be  planted  as  early 
as  possible  and  other  portions  at  intervals  of  about  a week.  The 
hemp  will  not  then  mature  all  at  once,  and  a considerably  longer 
period  will  be  available  for  harvesting.  After  the  hemp  is 
seeded,  nothing  remains  to  be  done  until  it  is  ready  to  harvest. 

Hemp  Destroys  Weeds  on  Fertile  Land 

On  fertile  soils,  hemp  is  the  best  smother  crop  for  all  kinds  of 
weeds.  Wherever  hemp  has  been  grown  in  America  it  has  left 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


the  soil  freer  from  weeds  than  has  any  other  crop.  In  Wiscon- 
sin hemp  has  proved  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  smother  crop  for 
quack  grass  and  Canada  thistles.  Early  experiments  that 
showed  the  value  of  hemp  as  a smother  crop  led  Wisconsin  farm- 
ers to  grow  it  on  a commercial  scale.  A large  acreage  is  still 
seeded  to  hemp  each  year  on  soils  infested  with  quack  grass  and 
Canada  thistles. 

Too  many  people  have  the  idea  that  land  infested  with  quack 
or  thistles  can  be  plowed  in  the  spring,  harrowed,  and  seeded  to 
hemp,  and  that  the  hemp  will  entirely  destroy  these  weeds.  In 
very  favorable  seasons,  and  under  the  best  conditions,  quack  and 
thistles  might  be  overcome  by  such  a method,  but  experience  has 
shown  repeatedly  that  hemp  planted  on  quack  grass  or  Canada 
thistle  land  where  no  attention  has  previously  been  paid  to  sub- 
duing these  weeds,  will  fail  both  to  smother  out  the  weeds  and 
to  produce  a satisfactory  growth  of  hemp.  It  is  highly  import- 
ant, therefore,  that  soils  that  are  so  infested  be  prepared  prop- 
erly. 

Weed  infested  lands  should  be  plowed  in  July  or  August  of 
the  year  preceding  the  planting  of  hemp.  The  plowed  land 
should  be  cultivated  with  the  spring-tooth  harrow  every  week 
until  further  growth  of  the  weeds  is  prevented  by  the  freezing  of 
the  soil.  If  there  are  many  loosened  roots,  remove  them  with  the 
hayrake,  leave  them  in  windrows,  and  burn  them. 

Use  heavy  applications  of  well-rotted  manure,  plowed  under 
in  the  fall  or  as  a top-dressing  in  the  spring.  Early  in  the 
spring  the  soil  should  be  worked  into  a good  seed  bed,  and  if 
quack  and  thistles  appear,  they  should  be  thoroughly  subdued 
with  a good  sharp  disk.  If  necessary,  follow  the  disk  with  a 
spring-tooth  harrow.  Keep  the  weeds  down  to  the  very  time  the 
hemp  is  seeded.  If  the  spring  is  cold  and  wet  it  is  advisable 
to  delay  planting  until  the  soil  is  sufficiently  warm  to  insure 
immediate  germination  of  the  seed.  On  such  weed  infested  land, 
seeding  can  be  delayed  until  the  first  of  June,  though  ordinarily 
earlier  planting  is  preferable. 

Hemp  Will  Not  Become  a Weed 

Though  hemp  escapes  from  cultivation  and  occasionally  ap- 
pears from  year  to  year  as  a volunteer  plant,  it  does  not  become  a 
weed.  It  may  continue  to  grow  in  fence  corners,  roadsides,  and 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


27 


other  waste  places,  but  it  seldom,  if  ever,  persists  in  cultivated 
fields. 

Wisconsin  hemp  is,  as  yet,  entirely  free  from  attacks  by  insects 
and  diseases.  Not  one  report  of  injuries  to  the  crop  from  in- 
sects or  plant  diseases  has  been  received.  The  chief  enemy  to 
hemp  in  Kentucky  is  a parasitic  plant  known  as  the  “branched 
broom  rape,”  but  this  parasite  has  not  appeared  in  Wisconsin. 


FIG.  10.— HARVESTING  HEMP  BY  THE  OLD  HAND  METHOD 

Before  modern  harvesting  machinery  was  developed,  hemp  was  harvested  by  a laborious 
hand  process.  (Office  of  Fiber  Investigations,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 


Harvest  Crop  When  Mature 

Fiber  hemp  should  not  be  left  until  the  seeds  mature  before  it 
is  harvested.  The  proper  time  to  harvest  is  when  the  pollen  of 
the  male  plants  is  practically  all  shed,  or  not  earlier  than  the 
time  at  which  the  male  plants  are  in  full  bloom  and  pollen  is  be- 
ing shed.  If  hemp  is  harvested  too  early,  the  fiber  is  immature 
and  consequently,  it  will  be  very  weak. 

Harvesting  should  not  be  delayed  very  long  after  the  plants 
are  sufficiently  mature,  for  injury  to  the  quality  of  the  fiber  may 
result.  In  northern  states  where  the  season  is  short  and  there 
is  danger  of  the  crop  being  covered  with  snow  before  it  is  well 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


retted,  prompt  harvest  is  especially  important.  In  Wisconsin, 
harvesting  usually  begins  about  September  10  and  should  be 
completed  not  later  than  October  1. 

Hemp  Harvester  Saves  Labor 

Outside  of  the  United  States  hemp  is  still  harvested  by  hand, 
and  until  the  last  few  years  hand  harvesting  has  been  generally 


FIG.  11.— HARVESTING  WITH  THE  SELF  RAKE  REAPER 

The  self  rake  reaper  was  a great  improvement  on  the  hand  method.  In  some  sections 
of  the  country  it  is  still  suited  to  conditions.  (Office  of  Fiber  Investigations,  U.  S. 
D.  A.) 

practiced  in  America.  Even  now  much  of  the  Kentucky  crop 
is  harvested  by  negroes  with  a hand  hemp -hook.  Several  ma- 
chines have  been  devised  for  harvesting  the  crop,  but  the  first 
successful  machine  and  the  only  one  considerably  used  previous 
to  1917  was  the  self-rake  reaper.  This  machine  does  very  satis- 
factory work,  but  it  leaves  the  stalks  in  bundles  or  gavels  which 
must  be  spread  out  by  hand  in  thin  layers  or  swaths.  In  1917  a 
machine  especially  devised  for  havesting  hemp  was  placed  on 
the  market.  This  machine  not  only  cuts  hemp,  but  spreads  it  at 
the  same  time,  leaving  the  stalks  in  an  even  swath.  The  work  is 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


29 


done  much  better  than  by  hand  as  the  butts  are  more  even  and 
there  is  less  crossing  and  tangling  of  the  stalks.  As  an  experi- 
mental machine  it  has  done  exceptionally  well,  and  there  is  no 
question  but  that  it  will  be  widely  used  and  will  be  a great  factor 
in  placing  the  hemp  industry  on  a permanent  basis. 


FIG.  12.— THE  NEW  HEMP  HARVESTER  AT  WORK 

The  modern  hemp  harvester,  which  was  used  for  the  first  time  in  1917,  promises  to 
revolutionize  the  hemp  industry. 


Hemp  Is  Dew  Retted 

In  America,  all  hemp  is  dewretted ; in  southern  Europe  water- 
retting  is  the  general  practice.  Dewretting  is  accomplished  by 
leaving  the  hemp  stalks  spread  out  on  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
where  they  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  dews,  rains,  frosts,  and 
sunshine.  The  object  is  to  allow  the  stalks  to  undergo  a process 
of  fermentation  or  partial  decomposition,  by  which  the  inner 
bark  is  loosened  from  the  wood  so  that  the  fiber  may  be  easily 
separated  from  the  “hurds,”  or  woody  parts. 

In  Wisconsin  the  stalks  should  be  spread  as  soon  as  harvested. 
It  requires  from  four  to  ten  weeks  to  properly  ret  hemp  in  this 
state.  Heavy  dews,  light  rains,  sunshine,  and  moderately  warm 
weather  are  very  desirable.  Continuous  moist  cloudy  weather 
will  not  give  as  good  a color  to  the  fiber  as  will  intervals  of  moist 
weather  and  sunshine.  Weather  conditions  in  Wisconsin  are 
usually  about  right  for  dewretting. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


Hemp  may  not  ret  sufficiently  to  allow  it  to  be  taken  up  be- 
fore it  is  covered  with  snow.  In  such  cases,  it  is  necessary  to 
leave  the  hemp  until  the  snow  melts.  If  thaws  do  not  occur  dur- 
ing the  winter,  the  hemp  will  not  be  damaged,  providing  it  is 
taken  up  soon  after  the  snow  disappears  in  the  spring.  If  it 
is  allowed  to  remain  long  after  the  snow  is  gone,  there  is  great 
danger  of  over-retting. 

It  is  important  to  know  when  hemp  is  properly  retted.  Un- 
der-retting or  over-retting  seriously  affects  the  quality  of  the 


FIG.  13.— GATHERING  AND  BINDING  RETTED  HEMP 

After  the  stalks  are  properly  retted,  they  are  picked  up,  bound  in  bundles,  and 
shocked.  (Office  of  Fiber  Investigations,  U.  S.  D.  A.) 

liber  and  also  interferes  with  separating  it  from  the  wood  or 
hurds.  Well-retted  plants  should  be  dark  gray  or  brown  in 
color,  all  the  green  color  having  disappeared.  When  a few 
stalks  are  taken  in  the  hands  and  broken  by  rapidly  bending 
them  back  and  forth,  the  fiber  should  readily  separate  from  the 
wood.  To  avoid  over-retting,  the  stalks  should  be  examined 
frequently. 

Retted  Stalks  Bound  in  Bundles 

After  the  stalks  are  properly  retted,  they  are  gathered  and 
bound  in  bundles.  These  bundles,  made  a little  thicker  than 
corn  bundles,  vary  from  10  to  12  inches  in  diameter.  They  are 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


31 


tied  either  with  a hemp  stalk  or  with  binder  twine,  stalks  being 
used  when  the  work  is  done  by  hand.  The  bundles  are  then 
butted,  by  chucking  them  up  and  down  on  the  ground  several 
times,  and  placed  in  rather  loose  shocks.  The  shocks  should  be 
securely  tied  to  prevent  their  being  blown  over. 

Previous  to  last  fall  (1917)  all  hemp  was  bound  by  hand. 
One  man  can  bind  from  one  to  two  acres  a day.  Hand  binding 
is  not  very  difficult  nor  expensive,  and  if  the  grower  has  but  a 
few  acres,  it  will  probably  pay  him  to  do  the  work  by  hand. 

A machine,  called  the  gather-binder,  was  devised  last  year  for 
gathering  the  stalks  from  the  swaths  and  binding  them.  Al- 
though this  machine  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  it  promises 
to  do  very  satisfactory  work,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  it  will  become  a permanent  addition  to  the  hemp  in- 
dustry. 


Care  Needed  in  Shocking  and  Stacking 

The  hemp  should  be  shocked  soon  after  binding.  The  shocks 
should  not  be  very  large,  and  they  should  be  set  up  rather  loosely 
so  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely  between  the  bundles  and  dry 
them. 

Since  the  central  breaking  mill  has  come  into  prominence  in 
Wisconsin  it  has  been  customary  to  deliver  the  hemp  directly  to 
the  mill  soon  after  shocking,  where  the  stalks  are  broken  at  once. 
Some  fields  are  either  stacked  on  the  farms  where  they  are  grown, 
or  are  hauled  to  the  breaking  plant  and  stacked  in  outside  stack 
yards.  It  is  not  a good  practice  to  leave  hemp  in  the  shock  for 
very  long  periods. 

Stacking  is  a practice  to  be  recommended  strongly  whenever 
considerable  time  is  to  elapse  between  retting  and  breaking. 
When  placed  in  the  stack,  hemp  goes  through  a so-called  sweat- 
ing process  which  is  beneficial.  A more  even  retting  and  a more 
uniform  color  of  fiber  is  obtained. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  building  stacks.  They 
should  be  so  constructed  that  each  layer  of  bundles  has  a very 
pronounced  pitch.  The  center  should  always  be  kept  high.  In 
lapping,  but  little  of  the  butts  of  each  layer  should  be  exposed 
to  the  weather,  as  the  exposed  parts  become  decomposed  and  the 
fiber  is  practically  destroyed  if  left  long  in  the  stack.  No  special 
type  of  stack  cover  has  yet  been  used  for  hemp. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


Drying  Hemp  Stalks 

Hemp  stalks  must  be  perfectly  dry  before  they  can  be  broken 
satisfactorily.  Failure  to  recognize  that  fact  has  been  respon- 
sible for  most  of  the  failure  in  breaking  hemp.  The  prevailing 
idea  has  been  that  the  breaking  of  hemp  should  be  handled  in  a 
manner  similar  to  threshing  grain,  by  portable  machines  that 
could  be  moved  from  one  farm  to  another,  and  portable  ma- 


FIG.  U.— A WISCONSIN  HEMP  STACK  YARD 

The  dry  retted  stalks  are  hauled  to  the  breaking  mills  and  stacked  before  they  are 

“broken  out.” 


chines  have  been  universally  used  until  the  last  three  years. 
In  seasons  of  favorable  weather  such  a method  works  out  very 
well,  but  in  Wisconsin  there  are  usually  but  a few  weeks  out 
of  the  year  during  which  hemp  is  sufficiently  dry  to  break  to 
advantage.  This  method,  which  was  dependent  upon  the  un- 
certainty of  the  weather,  was  very  unsatisfactory,  and  it  has 
been  entirely  replaced  by  kiln-drying,  one  of  the  most  important 
advances  in  the  development  of  the  hemp  industry. 

Kiln-drying  is  now  considered  an  essential  part  of  the  break- 
ing process.  Since  kiln-dried  stalks  are  used,  breaking  is  not 
dependent  upon  the  uncertainties  of  the  weather.  Instead,  a 
regular  crew  of  men  can  be  given  steady  employment  and  the 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


33 


brake  can  be  operated  the  year  ’round,  day  and  night  if  neces- 
sary. The  use  of  the  dry  kiln  has  made  of  hemp  breaking  a 
well-organized,  stable  business,  instead  of  a troublesome  job  to 
be  done  whenever  weather  conditions  would  permit. 

Breaking  the  Hemp 

When  the  stalks  are  properly  retted  and  cured,  they  are  ready 
for  the  hemp  brake.  Breaking  is  the  crushing  of  the  wood 


FIG.  15.— the  hand  brake 

Before  the  coming  of  modern  machinery,  all  hemp  was  broken  by  hand— a back-break- 
ing, monotonous  job. 


underneath  the  layers  of  fiber  to  such  an  extent  that  the  wood 
can  be  readily  separated  from  the  fiber.  Though  hemp  has  been 
grown  in  the  United  States  since  colonial  times,  until  the  last 
three  years,  the  crop  has  universally  been  broken  with  hand 
brakes.  Power  machines  have  frequently  been  devised  and  dis- 
carded, and  even  at  the  present  time  there  are  no  power  ma- 
chines used  in  Kentucky. 

Hand  Brakes.  The  hand  brake  is  a very  simple  device,  but 
its  operation  demands  hard  work  and  much  skill.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  cleaned  hemp  is  a good  average  day’s  work  for  one 

3 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


man,  although  there  are  records  of  as  high  as  400  pounds.  Hand 
brakes  must  be  replaced  by  power  brakes  because  breaking  by 
hand  requires  too  much  time  and  labor ; because  the  hemp  must 
be  over-retted  before  it  can  be  satisfactorily  handled  on  the  hand 
brake;  and  because  such  a method  necessitates  breaking  only 
when  the  weather  is  favorable. 

Hand  brakes  have  never  been  used  for  handling  commercial 
crops  in  Wisconsin;  power  brakes  have  been  used  throughout. 
The  success  of  power  brakes  is  made  evident  by  the  fact  that  Wis- 
consin fiber  is  in  as  great  demand  as  that  produced  anywhere  in 
the  United  States. 


fig.  16.— first  brake  successfully  used  in  Wisconsin 

This  brake  was  first  used  as  a portable  machine.  Breaking  in  the  field  was  discontinued. 
It  is  now  housed  in  a central  mill. 

Power  Brakes.  The  great  problem  of  breaking  hemp  in  Wis- 
consin is  now  practically  solved.  Power  brakes  are  established 
and  doing  very  satisfactory  work. 

The  first  successful  brake  tested  in  this  state  has  been  used 
for  several  years  by  the  Rock  River  Hemp  Mills  at  Waupun. 
It  was  originally  intended  as  a portable  machine,  but  the  idea 
of  moving  it  from  one  farm  to  another  has  been  given  up  and  for 
the  last  two  years  it  has  been  housed  in  a breaking  mill,  to  which 
the  hemp  stalks  are  hauled. 

The  majority  of  the  breaking  machines  now  in  use  in  Wiscon- 
sin are  of  the  fluted  roller  type. 

Another  type  of  brake  is  now  being  tried  out  near  Brandon. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


35 


The  breaking  is  done  by  means  of  fluted  rolls,  but  instead  of 
the  stalks  being  fed  end-wise,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  fluted 
roller  machines,  they  are  fed  to  the  rolls  at  an  angle  and  by 
means  of  a specially  devised  feeding  table.  This  machine  has 
much  promise  but  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage.  Many  other 
types  of  brakes  have  been  tested  in  this  and  other  states,  but 
thus  far  they  have  not  proved  to  be  as  satisfactory  as  the  fluted 
roll  brakes. 

Central  Breaking  Plants  Best 

Previous  to  the  last  few  years,  all  dewretted  hemp  has  been 
broken  out  in  the  field  with  portable  hand  or  power  brakes. 
Such  a method  necessitated  little  or  no  hauling.  Under  the 
modern  plan  of  central  plants  which  house  the  breaking  machin- 
ery, it  is  necessary  to  haul  the  retted  and  cured  stalks  over  dis- 
tances varying  from  less  than  a mile  to  several  miles.  Just  how 
far  hemp  can  be  hauled  profitably  will  depend  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  the  roads  and  the  price  obtained.  Generally  speaking, 
two  horses  will  draw  from  3,000  to  4,000  pounds  of  cured  stalks, 
which  represents  the  yield  of  one-half  acre  of  average  hemp. 
If  the  roads  are  reasonably  good,  hemp  can  be  hauled  profitably 
as  far  as  five  to  seven  miles.  In  Wisconsin  it  has  sometimes 
been  hauled  ten  miles. 

Hauling  is  by  no  means  as  expensive  as  it  is  generally  thought 
to  be,  and  it  is  certainly  better  to  draw  the  stalks  several  miles 
and  deliver  them  to  a central  breaking  plant  than  to  break  them 
in  the  field  with  portable  machines  and  undergo  the  long  delays 
which  invariably  result  from  unfavorable  weather. 

The  Modern  Breaking  Mill 

The  great  advance  made  in  the  production  of  rough  hemp 
fiber  has  come  largely  as  a result  of  the  development  of  the  cen- 
tral breaking  mill.  The  several  mills  now  operating  in  this  and 
other  states  have  been  very  successful  and  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  principle  of  breaking  hemp  in  fully  equipped 
plants  is  correct,  and  that  it  marks  permanent  progress  in  the 
development  of  the  hemp  industry. 

The  modern  hemp  mills,  several  of  which  are  now  established 
in  Wisconsin,  consist  of  a receiving  room,  dry  kilns,  breaking 
room  with  brakes,  scutchers  and  balers,  boiler  room,  and  engine 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


and  fan  room.  The  receiving  room  is  not  only  used  for  receiv- 
ing the  stalks  but  is  generally  used  for  storing  sufficient  hemp 
stalks  to  insure  continuous  operation  of  the  mill  during  periods 
of  unfavorable  weather  which  prevent  the  delivery  of  stalks  from 
fields  and  stack  yards. 

From  the  receiving  room  the  stalks  are  conducted  through  the 
dry  kilns,  where  the  excess  moisture  is  removed  by  means  of  a 
hot  air  blast.  The  thoroughly  dried  stalks  are  then  fed  to  the 
breaking  rolls  where  they  are  reduced  to  a crushed  mass.  This 


FIG.  17.— CENTRAL  BREAKING  MILL  AT  WAUPUN 

This  mill  was  constructed  by  the  first  hemp  company  in  the  state,  and  is  the  second 
mill  in  the  United  States.  The  first  mill  was  built  at  Brandon,  Wisconsin. 

mass  of  broken  stalks  passes  over  a series  of  shakers  by  which 
most  of  the  loose  hurds  are  separated  from  the  fiber,  and  is  then 
conducted  between  the  scutching  wheels  for  more  complete  re- 
moval of  hurds. 

The  fiber,  which  is  then  fairly  clean,  is  twisted  into  coarse 
hands  and  baled.  The  baled  fiber  is  the  final  product  of  the 
hemp  mill  and  is  known  commercially  as  rough  fiber.  As  such 
it  is  sold  to  cordage  and  spinning  mills. 

Hemp  breaking  mills  are  now  in  operation  in  Wisconsin  at 
Waupun,  Alto,  Brandon,  Fairwater  (2  mills),  Markesan  (2 
mills),  Union  Grove,  and  Iron  Ridge.  Arrangements  have  been 
made  for  erecting  others  at  Milton,  and  Picketts. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


37 


Outside  of  Wisconsin  there  are  but  seven  fully  equipped  and 
successfully  operating  mills.  Wisconsin  has,  therefore,  more 
hemp  mills  than  all  the  other  states  combined. 


Scutching  the  Fiber 

After  hemp  stalks  are  dried  and  broken  the  woody  part,  called 
hurds,  must  be  separated  from  the  fiber;  this  process  is  called 
scutching.  Before  modern  power  brakes  were  used,  all  scutching 


FIG.  18.— NINE  HEMP  MILLS  IN  WISCONSIN 

This  state  has  nearly  twice  as  many  plants  for  handling  hemp  fiber  as  all  the  other 
states.  Wisconsin  has  led  in  the  introduction  of  labor  saving  devices  in  the  hemp  in- 
dustry. Michigan  has  receently  equipped  a mill,  and  California  now  has  two  mills. 


was  done  by  hand;  the  stalks  were  broken  and  the  uncleaned 
fiber  whipped  over  the  brake  and  shaken  until  it  was  free  from 
hurds. 

In  Wisconsin,  where  machine  brakes  are  used,  the  cleaning 
is  done  with  power  scutchers.  These  scutchers  consist  of  from 
two  to  four  large  cylinders,  on  the  outside  surface  of  which  there 
are  wooden  slats.  The  cylinders  are  stationary  and  revolve  to- 
ward each  other.  The  uncleaned  fiber  is  conducted  between 
these  wheels  and  held  firmly  in  the  center  by  means  of  a clamp - 
conveyor.  As  the  fiber  passes  between  the  scutching  cylinders 
the  hurds  are  combed  out.  A device  for  off-setting  the  hemp  in 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


the  clamp-conveyor  is  necessary  to  clean  the  middle  portion  of 
the  fiber,  and  scutchers  with  such  a device  are  now  successfully 
used. 

Yields  of  Hemp 

The  yields  of  hemp  in  Wisconsin  have  been  good.  The  aver- 
age of  the  state  for  the  last  several  years  has  been  higher  than 
the  average  yields  of  Kentucky  and  equal  to  those  obtained  in 
any  other  state  except  California. 

The  yields  of  rough  fiber  in  Wisconsin  have  usually  ranged 
from  800  to  1,400  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  average  for  the  state 
in  1916  was  estimated  at  1,200  pounds  and  yields  of  as  high  as 
2,100  pounds  are  on  record.  In  1917  a considerable  acreage 
was  planted  on  unsuitable  soil,  which  reduced  the  average  for 
the  state  to  1,100  pounds.  Good  yields  have  always  been  ob- 
tained in  Wisconsin  wherever  the  crop  was  planted  on  fertile 
and  well-prepared  soil. 

For  the  sake  of  comparison  the  following  estimate  of  acre 
yields  in  the  leading  hemp  producing  states  is  given: — 

Table  III. — Estimated  Yields  of  Hemp  Fiber  in  Leading  Hemp 

States 


State  Pounds  to  the  acre 

Kentucky  1,000 

Wisconsin  1,200 

Indiana  1,200 

Ohio  1,200 

Michigan  1,200 

California  1,350 


Proportion  of  line  and  tow.  The  statements  in  Table  II  on 
yields  are  made  in  terms  of  total  rough  fiber,  but  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  total  fiber  includes  both  the  long  fibers,  called 
line  or  long  line,  and  the  short,  tangled  fibers,  called  tow.  The 
line  is  worth  from  two  to  three  times  as  much  as  the  tow,  and 
the  larger  the  percentage  of  line  fiber  obtained,  the  more  valu- 
able the  product.  Regardless  of  how  carefully  hemp  is  handled, 
there  will  be  some  tow  produced.  In  Wisconsin  the  mills  usu- 
ally produce  10  to  25  per  cent  tow  and  75  to  90  per  cent  line. 
The  amount  of  tow  produced  depends  upon  how  thoroughly  it  is 
cleaned  by  the  scutchers,  how  carefully  the  stalks  are  handled 
and  how  well  they  have  been  retted.  Stalks  under  four  feet 
in  length  will  produce  fiber  that  is  practically  all  tow,  and  if 
the  stalks  have  been  under-retted,  a very  high  percentage  of  tow 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


39 


will  result.  Tangled  and  unevenly  butted  stalks  will  also  pro- 
duce a high  percentage  of  tow.  If  hemp  is  properly  handled 
both  by  the  grower  and  throughout  the  breaking  process,  there 
should  result  not  over  10  to  15  per  cent  of  tow. 

One  thousand  pounds  of  Wisconsin’s  rough  fiber  will  yield 
from  800  to  900  pounds  of  line,  and  from  100  to  200  pounds  of 
tow.  An  average  hemp  crop  in  Wisconsin  will  yield  three  tons 
of  well-retted  and  dried  stalks  to  the  acre.  To  produce  such  a 
yield  the  stand  of  hemp  must  be  even,  the  growth  regular,  and 
the  average  height  six  and  one-half  feet.  The  three  tons  of  dry, 
retted  stalks  will  produce,  on  the  average,  20  per  cent  by  weight 
of  rough  fiber.  A crop  of  hemp,  therefore,  that  produces  three 
tons  of  dry,  retted  stalks  to  the  acre  will  give  a yield  of  1,200 
pounds  of  rough  fiber. 

Green  hemp  stalks,  at  the  time  they  are  harvested,  contain  ap- 
proximately 60  per  cent  more  water  than  when  they  are  retted 
and  dry.  Consequently  a yield  of  three  tons  of  dry,  retted  stalks 
represents  a yield  of  seven  and  one-half  tons  of  green  material. 


Table  IV. — Average  Yields  of  iGreen  iStalks,  Retted  Stalks,  Total 
Fiber,  Line  and  Tow 

Yield  to  the  acre 


Material  in  pounds 

Green  stalks  15,000 

Dry,  retted  stalks 6,000 

Total  fiber  1,200 

Rough,  long  fiber 960 

Tow  240 


Cost  of  Producing  Hemp 

It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  accurate  estimates  of  the  cost  of 
producing  hemp,  for  in  hemp  as  in  the  production  of  any  other 
crop,  the  factors  determining  cost  differ  on  each  farm.  In  order 
to  provide  a general  idea  of  the  cost  of  producing  hemp,  the  fol- 
lowing statements,  based  on  dependable  data,  are  given. 

Hemp  is  seeded  in  the  spring.  The  land  must  be  thoroughly 
prepared,  and  consequently,  the  cost  of  preparing  the  seed  bed 
will  be  somewhat  greater  than  for  other  spring  seeded  crops. 

Hemp  is  seeded  broadcast,  as  are  most  small  grain  crops. 
The  cost  of  seeding,  therefore,  will  be  practically  the  same  as 
for  oats,  barley,  or  wheat. 

Hempseed  is  now  (1917-18)  expensive,  ranging  from  $7  to 
$10  a bushel.  Since  a bushel  is  required  to  the  acre,  the  seed 
will  cost  from  $7  to  $10  an  acre,  or  an  average  of  $8.50.  It  is 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


evident  that  seed  for  the  hemp  crop  is  an  expensive  item  com- 
pared with  seed  for  planting  most  other  farm  crops. 

After  hemp  is  seeded,  no  cultivation  or  other  attention  is  nec- 
essary until  it  is  ready  to  harvest.  In  this  respect  the  cost  of 
production  is  figured  on  the  same  basis  as  for  small  grains. 

The  cost  of  harvesting  will  depend  upon  what  arrangements 
are  made  for  obtaining  the  hemp  harvester.  If  one  farmer  grew 
from  five  to  ten  acres,  and  bought  a harvester  for  his  own  crop 
only,  the  cost  of  harvesting  his  crop  would  be  extremely  high. 
If  several  farmers  clubbed  together  and  bought  a harvester  co- 
operatively, the  expense  of  harvesting  would  be  comparatively 
reasonable.  One  harvester  should  handle  100  acres  of  hemp  so 
that  cooperation  among  growers  is  very  important.  Where 
growers  do  not  see  fit  to  cooperate  in  the  buying  of  a harvester, 
the  company  which  operates  the  mill  should  purchase  the  neces- 
sary machines,  furnish  a man  with  each,  and  harvest  the  hemp 
at  an  agreed  price. 

A hemp  harvester  costs  more  than  a grain  binder ; more  power 
is  required  to  pull  it ; and  since  it  is  a new  device,  more  delays 
due  to  breakage  are  likely  to  occur.  This  means  that  the  cost  of 
harvesting  hemp  is,  at  present,  somewhat  greater  than  for  har- 
vesting a grain  crop. 

After  the  hemp  is  retted,  it  must  be  taken  up  from  the  swath 
and  bound.  This  operation,  called  lifting,  can  now  be  done  with 
the  gather-binder,  a machine  devised  for  this  particular  purposa. 
By  using  such  a machine,  the  cost  of  binding  the  retted  stalks 
will  be  approximately  the  same  as  for  threshing  small  grain. 

After  the  stalks  are  bound,  they  must  be  shocked,  a task  that 
requires  about  the  same  amount  of  labor  as  does  shocking  bound 
corn. 

The  cost  of  hauling  the  dry,  retted  stalks  to  the  hemp  mill 
will  vary  according  to  the  length  of  haul  and  the  conditions  of 
the  roads.  In  estimating  the  cost  of  hauling,  it  may  be  consid- 
ered that  a good  team  will  haul  an  average  of  3,000  pounds  to 
the  load,  which  means  that  an  acre  of  average  hemp  will  make 
two  loads  of  stalks. 

When  delivered  to  the  mill,  the  hemp  must  be  stacked.  This 
requires  about  the  same  amount  of  labor  as  stacking  bundled 
grain. 

From  these  facts,  it  can  be  estimated  that  hemp  compared 
with  small  grains  costs  from  $5  to  $7  more  an  acre  for  seed, 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


41 


from  $2  to  $3  more  an  acre  for  harvesting,  and  somewhat  more 
for  delivering,  the  total  cost  of  production  ranging  from  $8  to 
$11  more  to  the  acre. 

The  total  returns  received  are  such  that  the  net  profits  are 
much  greater  from  hemp  than  from  small  grains — in  fact, 

greater  than  from  most  other 
Wisconsin  crops — a statement 
substantiated  by  the  reports 
of  a large  majority  of  hemp 
growers  in  the  state. 


Wisconsin  hemp  growers 
are  receiving  most  encourag- 
ing returns  for  the  crop. 
Prices  received  during  1917 
ranged  from  $50  to  over  $100 
gross  an  acre. 

These  large  returns  are 
due,  of  course,  to  the  present 
high  price  of  hemp  fiber  and 
should  not  be  expected  to  con- 
tinue indefinitely. 

However,  the  market  out- 
look, considered  from  all 
points  and  from  the  supplies 
of  competing  fibers,  indicates 
that  for  several  years  prices  will  .remain  higher  than  they  were 
before  the  war. 

So  long  as  present  prices  for  fiber  continue  the  grower  of 
hemp  can  expect  to  receive  $75  an  acre  for  a first-class  crop  of 
hemp.  This  does  not  imply  that  any  field  of  hemp  is  worth  $75 
an  acre  for  not  all  hemp  is  good  hemp.  Crops  that  are  short, 
irregular,  full  of  weeds,  and  poorly  handled  are  of  less  value 
and  may  be  nearly  worthless. 


FIG.  19.— CLEANED  HEMP  FIBER  IS 
BALED 

Hemp  fiber  is  pressed  into  bales  about  the 
size  and  shape  of  cotton  bales. 


Returns  From  Hemp 


Processing  the  Hemp  Fiber 

Before  hemp  fiber  can  be  spun  into  yarn  it  must  be  either 
carded  or  hackled.  Carding  and  hackling  are  combing  processes, 
both  of  which  are  now  done  by  power  machines  at  the  spinning 


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


mills.  These  processes  remove  all  foreign  materials  and  reduce 
the  fiber  to  finer  uniform  strands.  Formerly  a large  proportion 
of  the  best  hemp  in  Kentucky  was  hackled  by  hand,  and  there 
are  still  two  or  Three  mills  in  that  state  where  hand  hackling  is 
continued  on  a reduced  scale.  The  fiber  hackled  by  hand  re- 
sults in  the  Kentucky  single-dressed  and  Kentucky  double- 
dressed  hemp  still  quoted  in  the  market.  One  or  two  of  the  lo- 
cal dealers  also  have  cards  for  preparing  carded  hemp,  which 
is  usually  prepared  from  the  medium  grades  or  tangled  hemp 
that  would  not  command  a first-class  price  as  line  fiber. 

Buying  and  Selling  the  Crop 

In  Wisconsin  the  breaking  and  cleaning  of  hemp  has  become 
a specialized  business,  separate  from  the  production  of  the  crop. 
Consequently,  the  grower  concerns  himself  only  with  the  grow- 
ing of  the  crop  and  the  delivering  of  the  retted  stalks,  and  the 
mill  operator  attends  to  the  breaking,  scutching,  and  baling. 
As  a result  of  the  two  separate  phases  of  the  industry,  several 
methods  of  buying  and  selling  the  crop  have  developed.  None 
of  these  methods  are  entirely  satisfactorjL 

Buying  the  retted  stalks  by  the  acre  is  the  most  common 
method.  The  owner  of  the  hemp  mill  will  examine  the 
farmer’s  hemp  field,  estimate  the  yield  of  retted  stalks,  note 
their  condition  and  make  a rough  estimate  of  the  quality  of  fiber 
they  will  produce.  He  then  makes  a bid  on  the  crop,  offering  a 
certain  price  for  the  stalks  when  delivered  at  the  mill.  Such  a 
method  necessitates  a great  deal  of  bickering  and  is  not  good 
business  for  either  the  grower  or  the  buyer. 

Buying  the  retted  stalks  by  the  ton  is  another  method  in  com- 
mon use.  When  bought  in  this  way,  the  dealer  inspects  the 
grower ’s  crop  and  makes  him  an  offer  based  on  the  length,  even- 
ness, and  quality  of  the  stalks  with  the  understanding  that  the 
stalks  are  to  be  delivered  to'  the  mill  in  good  condition  and  rea- 
sonably free  from  moisture.  This  method  is  much  more  busi- 
ness-like, but  since  the  amount  of  moisture  in  different  lots  of 
hemp  stalks  varies  greatly,  disagreements  and  misunderstandings 
are  sure  to  result.  If  there  were  a simple  way  of  determining 
the  amount  of  moisture  in  each  load,  and  its  value  were  com- 
puted on  that  basis,  the  method  would  then  be  much  more  satis- 
factory. 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


43 


In  a third  method  in  common  use,  the  grower  delivers 
his  crop  to  the  mill  where  it  is  broken,  cleaned  and  baled,  and 
the  grower  either  pays  the  mill  an  agreed  price  a pound 
for  the  work,  or  the  mill  buys  the  fiber  at  an  agreed  price.  This 
method  of  dealing,  based  on  the  actual  amount  of  fiber  produced, 
should  do  away  with  most  misunderstandings  and  disagreements. 
The  objections  to  such  an  arrangement  are  that  the  majority  of 
growers  prefer  either  to  receive  pay  for  the  crop,  or  to  know  how 


FIG-.  20. — GROWING  HEMP  FOR  SEED 


For  seed  production  hemp  is  planted'  in  hills  and  cultivated  like  corn.  The  Experi- 
ment Station  has  made  some  progress  in  developing  a strain  of  fiber  hemp  that  will 
mature  in  Wisconsin.  (Office  of  Fiber  Investigations,  U.  S.  D.  AD 

much  they  are  going  to  receive  at  the  time  the  crop  is  delivered ; 
they  object  to  storing  the  crop  at  the  mill  to  await  the  time  when 
the  crop  can  be  broken  out,  which  is  often  several  months. 
Such  a method  also  works  a hardship  on  the  mill,  for  storage 
room  must  be  provided,  each  man’s  crop  marked  and  kept  sepa- 
rate, and  each  crop  broken  out  and  handled  as  a separate  lot. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  at  this  stage  just  what  is  the  best  ar- 
rangement for  buying  and  selling  the  hemp  crop.  The  indus- 
try is  new  and  rapidly  developing  and  these  matters  must  be 
worked  out  gradually. 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


Needs  of  the  Hemp  Industry 

While  more  progress  in  the  development  of  the  hemp  industry 
has  been  made  during  the  last  few  years  than  in  all  previous 
years  combined,  yet  there  remain  many  important  problems  to 
be  worked  out. 

The  seed  situation  is  very  unsatisfactory.  The  price  has  been 
so  unreasonably  high  and  erratic  that  the  very  life  of  the  Wis- 
consin hemp  industry  is  threatened.  Unless  the  seed  market 


FIG.  21.— WISCONSIN  HEMP  READY  TO  SHIP 
The  bales  of  hemp  fiber  are  sent  to  spinning  mills  and  binder  twine  plants. 


becomes  stabilized  and  the  price  reasonable,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  develop  new  areas  of  seed  production,  and  for  the  Wisconsin 
hemp  growers  to  contract  for  seed  acreages.  The  Experiment 
Station,  in  cooperation  with  the  Federal  Office  of  Fiber  Investi- 
gations, has  already  made  preliminary  arrangements  for  the 
development  of  such  new  centers  of  production  and  such  work 
must  be  continued  as  vigorously  as  possible.  In  the  meantime 
everything  possible  must  be  done  to  develop  or  discover  a variety 
of  fiber  hemp  that  will  mature  in  the  state.  The  Station  has 
already  made  considerable  progress  along  that  line,  encouraging 
results  have  been  obtained,  and  by  a continuation  of  such  work, 


Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry 


45 


it  may  be  possible  to  solve,  finally,  the  whole  troublesome  seed 
problem. 

There  should  be  a standard  market  classification  for  Wiscon- 
sin fiber.  Quantities  sufficient  to  warrant  such  a classification 
are  now  being  produced.  To  accomplish  this,  both  growers  and 
dealers  in  the  state  must  realize  that  there  is  good  fiber  and 
poor  fiber.  The  grower  must  learn  how  to  handle  the  crop  in 
order  that  the  best  quality  of  fiber  may  be  produced,  and  the 
operators  of  breaking  mills  must  learn  to  know  hemp  fiber,  to 
differentiate  between  the  general  grades,  and  to  handle  the 
breaking  and  cleaning  processes  in  such  a way  that  the  fiber 
will  be  in  the  best  possible  condition  for  further  processes. 

Farmers  have  learned  rapidly  to  grow  and  handle  the  crop, 
but  they  are  giving  too  little  attention  to  keeping  the  stalks 
straight  and  the  butts  of  the  bundles  even,  and  they  have  often 
neglected  the  retting.  The  more  the  stalks  are  crossed  and 
tangled,  the  more  tow  will  be  produced.  Uneven  butts  reduce 
the  length  of  the  line,  and  consequently  decrease  its  quality. 
Improper  retting  is  causing  a great  deal  of  trouble  and  if  con- 
tinued is  sure  to  affect  the  market  price.  Under-retting  is  en- 
tirely too  common.  Farmers  are  usually  very  anxious  to  gather 
up  the  hemp  stalks  to  avoid  the  danger  of  their  being  “ snowed 
under”  for  the  winter,  and  often  take  them  up,  bind  and  shock 
them  two  weeks  or  a month  too  early.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  stalks  should  be  left  spread  out  until  the  green  color 
has  entirely  disappeared  and  until  the  fiber  will  readily  peel 
away  from  the  woody  part  of  the  stems.  By  giving  attention 
to  these  important  details  the  grower  can  do  much  towards  in- 
suring a stable  and  profitable  market,  a matter  which  is  as  im- 
portant to  him  as  it  is  to  the  mill  operator. 

More  attention  should  also  be  given  to  handling  properly  the 
hemp  stalks  at  the  breaking  mill.  There  is  too  much  careless 
handling  of  the  stalks  in  preparing  them  for  the  dry  kiln  and 
in  delivering  them  to  the  brake  after  they  are  dried,  all  of  which 
increases  the  percentage  of  tow  and  reduces  the  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  long  line  fiber.  The  stalks  should  be  butted  carefully  be- 
fore they  are  fed  to  the  brake,  and  the  uncleaned  fiber  should  be 
delivered  to  the  scutcher  in  such  a way  that  the  butt  ends  of 
the  broken  material  will  be  as  even  as  possible  throughout. 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  293 


Great  progress  has  been  made  in  devising  breaking  and 
scutching  machinery,  but  there  is  still  room  for  improvement. 
The  greatest  need  right  now  is  for  an  improved  scutcher,  one 
that  will  remove  practically  all  the  hurds  from  the  fiber  and  wi  1 
not  produce  such  a large  percentage  of  tow.  Much  attention 
is  now  being  given  to  producing  such  an  improved  scutcher  and 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  one  will  soon  be  available. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Acknowledgment  is  hereby  made  to  State  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  C.  P.  Norgord,  who,  as  a member  of  the  Agron- 
omy Department,  was  chiefly  responsible  for  the  early  de- 
velopment of  the  hemp  industry  in  this  state  and  who  car- 
ried it  through  the  experimental  stage;  to  R.  A.  Moore,  Pro- 
fessor of  Agronomy,  who  initiated  the  work  with  hemp  and 
who  has  faithfully  guided  and  supported  it  throughout;  to 
L.  H.  Dewey  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
who  has  cooperated  with  the  Agronomy  Department  of  the 
Experiment  Station  in  all  hemp  investigations,  who  has  fur- 
nished financial  assistance,  and  who  has  reviewed  the  manu- 
script of  this  bulletin  and  furnished  the  photographs  for 
many  of  the  illustrations  used. 

Acknowledgment  is  also  due  to  that  faithful  group  of 
farmers  at  Waupun,  formerly  constituting  the  membership 
of  the  Rock  River  Hemp  Growers’  Association  whose  persist- 
ent efforts  are  considerably  responsible  for  tiding  the  new  in- 
dustry through  the  pioneer  stages;  to  H.  L.  Daniels,  and  J.  L. 
Barrett  of  the  International  Harvester  Company,  who  made 
possible  the  construction  of  the  new  hemp  harvester  and  the 
gather-binder  and  supplied  photographs  of  these  machines 
and  who  have  assisted  the  Wisconsin  industry  in  every  way 
possible;  to  J.  L.  Andreas  of  Pierceton,  Indiana,  who  de- 
vised successful  machinery  for  driving  and  breaking  hemp 
stalks  and  for  cleaning  the  fiber;  and  to  the  members  of 
the  Wisconsin  Hemp  Order,  who  have  rendered  valuable  serv- 
ice in  furthering  the  interests  of  the  industry. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


a President  of  the  University 
u.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
3.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Expt.  Station 

A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 

I.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 
S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science  ;in  charge 
of  Stallion  Enrollment 
AUST,  Horticulture 
L Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

I.  Benkendorf,  Dairy  Husbandry 
-a  E.  Binzel,  Home  Economics 

W.  Boutwell,  Agricultural  Chemistry 
5.  Bullock,  Animal  Husbandry 
. Cole,  In  charge  of  Experimental  Breed- 
ing 

Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

3.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Hus- 
bandry 

B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

•T.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
. Galpin,  Country  Life  Work 

J.  Geib,  Soils 

t.  Graber,  Agronomy 

3.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Vet.  Science 

1.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
3.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 

>.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Li.  Hatch,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 
L Hibbard,  Agr.  Economics 
jEN  Hillstrom,  Home  Economics 
W.  Hopkins,  Editor;  in  charge  of  Agr. 
Journalism  . 

2.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Hus- 
bandry 

l.  James,  Agr.  Education 

j.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 

ohnson.  Horticulture 

Et.  Jones,  Soils  _ , , 

B.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 
-Cleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
lN  Krueger,  Home  Economics 
D.  Leith,  Agronomy  (Highland) 
by  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics 

F.  Mattson,  Dairy  Husbandry 
I.  Milward,  Horticulture 
I.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 
A Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 
B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

:id  F.  Murray,  Agr.  Extension 
L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

C.  Oosteriiuis,  Animal  Husbandry 
H.  Otis,  Farm  Management 

H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
Li.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 
lestine  Schmit,  Home  Economics 
Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  Stewart.  Soils 

I L.  Stone,  Agronom  y ; in  charge  of  Seed  In- 

ispection 

C.  Taylor,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Truog,  Soils 

I W.  Ullsperger,  Soils  (Sturgeon  Bay) 

E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  Walster,  Soils 
W.  Weir,  Soils 

• R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 


K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 
W.  G.  Dormeyer,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
C.  W.  Vaughn,  Executive  Secretary 

H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Ento- 
mology 

J.  F.  Wojta,  Field  Supervisor  Extension  Courses 
and  Schools 


W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  Baker,  Agr.  Journalism 
T.  L.  Bewick,  Agr.  Extension 

G.  Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  W.  Brann,  Horticulture 

M.  H.  Campbell,  Experimental  Breeding 
C.  B.  Clevenger,  Soils 

Florence  M.  Coerper,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agricultural  Engineering 
C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  G.  Gross,  Agr.  Chemistry 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 

C.  S.  Hean,  Agr.  Library 

O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 

Myrtle  Jones,  Agr.  Economics 

Sarah  V.  Jones,  Experimental  Breeding 

O.  A.  Juve,  Agr.  Economics 

Hazel  Kent,  Agr.  Chemistry 

H.  Lunz,  Agronomy 

Maude  Miller,  Plant  Pathology 

Noel  Negley,  Animal  Husbandry 

Nellie  Beaubien  Nichols,  Agr.  Journalism 

F.  W.  Parker,  Soils 

G.  F.  Potter,  Horticulture 

E.  C.  Sauve,  Agr.  Engineering 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
David  Smith,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  M.  Woodworth,  Experimental  Breeding 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 


AGRICULTURAL  REPRESENTATIVES 

E.  L.  Luther,  State  Supervisor 
Geo.  M.  Briggs,  Burnett  county 

V.  E.  Brubaker,  Bayfield  county 

E.  A.  Carncross,  Brown  county 
A.  H.  Cole,  Lincoln  county 

J.  M.  Coyner,  Portage  county 
R.  L.  Cuff,  Barron  county 
Oscar  Gunderson,  Vilas  county 
M.  J.  Hoppert,  Sheboygan  county 
G.  M.  Householder,  Rusk  county 
G.  R.  Ingalls,  Eau  Claire  county 

W.  D.  Juday,  Oneida  county 
J.  S.  Klinka,  Polk  county 
R.  A.  Kolb,  Taylor  county 

L.  A.  Markham.  Polk  county 
Merton  Moore,  Shawano  county 
L.  L.  Oldham,  Walworth  county 
T.  M.  Olson,  St.  Croix  county 
Griffith  Richards,  Kenosha  county 

L.  H.  Robbins,  Jackson  county 

F.  H.  Sargent,  Price  countv 

J.  E.  Stallard,  Waukesha  county 
John  Swenehart,  Forest  county 
F.  G.  Swoboda,  Langlade  county 
John  Walz,  Douglas  county 
C.  P.  West,  Sawyer  county 

M.  H.  Wright,  Ashland  county 

O.  R.  Zeasman,  Green  Lake  ''ounty 


0‘1 

7S"3  fy 

Bulletin  294 


<Xjl. 


f 


July,  1918 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in 
War  Time 

(Report  of  the  Director  of  Agricultural  Extension  Service) 

H.  L.  Russell  and  K.  L.  Hatch 


READY  TO  RENDER  PRACTICAL  HELP 

Wisconsin  county  agents  are  always  ready  to  lend  a helping  hand.  This  agent  has 
loaded  the  fanning  mill  and  the  smut  machine  on  his  car  and  is  starting  on  a trip  to 
treat  grain  for  smut. 


Extension  Service  of  the  College  of  Agriculture 
The  University  of  Wisconsin 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 

County  representative  system  advances 3 

Farmers  realize  the  nation’s  need . 4 

Special  production  and  food  conservation  campaigns 5 

Seed  corn  secured  and  tested 5 

Spring  wheat  acreage  increased 5 

Vigorous  campaign  increases  silo  construction 6 

Land  clearing  augments  acreage 7 

Redistribution  of  live  stock 7 

Food  conservation  measures  popular 9 

Publications  issued  as  a result  of  wrar  conditions 9 

Potato  improvement  work 11 

Certification  of  potato  seed  stock . 11 

Potato  disease  control 12 

Orchard  management  demonstration 12 

Start  landscape  design  work 13 

Testing  for  tuberculosis  on  increase 13 

Examination  of  pathological  specimens 14 

Hog  cholera  serum  production 14 

Surface  drainage,  a wartime  necessity 14 

Tile  drainage  reclaims  idle  acres 15 

Soil  examinations  tell  soil  troubles 16 

Soil  management 16 

Farmers’  meetings  continue  in  popularity 18 

Farmers’  and  womens’  weeks 19 

Boys’  and  girls’  clubs  aid  food  production  campaign 20 

Livestock  improvement  grows  apace  21 

Official  tests  increase 21 

Breeders’  associations  are  organized 21 

Hold  sheep  growers’  meetings 22 

Stimulate  baby  beef  production 22 

Focus  on  swine  production _ 23 

Livestock  exchange 23 

Wisconsin  dairy  herds  selected  for  service 24 

Inoculation  of  peas  increases  production 26 

Millers  and  bankers  cooperate  with  college  in  bread  drive 28 

Bankers  lead  in  pedigree  wheat  distribution 29 

“The  pure  seed  and  home  power  special”- 29 

Dairy  demonstrations  control  factory  losses 30 

Farmers  interested  in  keeping  accounts 31 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 

County  Representative  System  Advances 

The  county  agents  rendered  valuable  war  service.  When 
the  call  for  more  food  came,  the  county  agent  was  on  the  ground 
with  the  knowledge  of  the  war  time  needs  of  his  county  and 
the  country. 

The  war  found  Wisconsin  with  19  county  agents — the  end  of 
the  year  (June  30,  1917)  saw  the  number  increased  to  27.  Six 
other  counties  had  provided  the  means  for  starting  county 
agents.  Upon  the  declaration  of  war  the  College  of  Agricul- 


It  has  been  customary  to  publish  the  results  of  the  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  of  the  Experiment  Station  and  the  Ex- 
tension Service  work  in  a combined  annual  report.  Owing 
to  the  press  of  work  in  the  executive  office  caused  by  ab- 
sence of  some  of  the  staff  members  engaged  in  war  service, 
it  has  been  impossible  to  prepare  promptly  the  results  of  both 
types  of  work  for  simultaneous  publication.  Consequently, 
the  work  of  the  Extension  Service  is  here  presented  sepa- 
rately. 


ture  released  members  of  the  teaching  staff  to  take  up  work 
similar  to  that  of  the  county  agents  in  the  unorganized  coun- 
ties. On  August  16  Congress  provided  additional  federal 
funds  which  made  it  possible  for  the  college  to  maintain  in  the 
field  throughout  the  summer  27  additional  men  as  emergency 
food  agents. 

These  emergency  food  agents  together  with  the  organized 
county  agents  made  a total  field  staff  of  54  men  and  gave  an 
almost  complete  state-wide  organization  with  which  to  carry 
on  vigorous  campaigns  for  increased  food  production.  Valuable 
service  was  rendered.  More  and  better  potatoes  were  raised; 
better  seed  grain  was  bought  by  the  farmers ; every 
possible  effort  was  put  forth  to  make  each  stroke  of  work  ac- 
complish the  greatest  result  in  increasing  the  nation’s  food 
supply. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


FARMERS  REALIZE  THE  NATION ’s  NEED 

Our  famers  are  rapidly  coming  to  realize  their  responsibil- 
ity in  supplying  food  to  the  people  at  home,  to  the  boys  in  the 
trenches,  to  our  allies,  and  others  dependent  upon  this  .nation 


FIG.  1.— ORGANIZED  FOR  BETTER  AGRICULTURE 

The  production  of  food  is  one  of  the  most  important  civilian  services  of  the  war. 
Nearly  all  counties  in  the  state  are  provided  with  agents  whose  business  it  is  to  assist 
in  providing  food  for  our  soldiers  at  the  front. 


for  food.  Farmers  understand  that  because  they  feed  the 
world  their  work  is  fundamental.  They  know  farm  conditions 
have  changed  since  the  war  began  and  that  it  is  their  patriotic 
duty  to  increase  the  yield  of  farm  crops.  They  feel  that 
greater  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  elimination  of  waste  and 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


5 


in  the  control  of  preventable  losses  and  that  better  judgment 
must  be  used  in  the  marketing  of  their  produce.  They  also 
realize  that  they  must  “do  better  the  things  that  they  know 
best  how  to  do.’’ 


Special  Production  and  Food  Conservation  Campaigns 

SEED  CORN  SECURED  AND  TESTED 

Immediately  after  declaration  of  war,  agricultural  agents 
were  requested  to  make  seed  corn  surveys.  Farmers  who  were 


FIG.  2.— THE  WORK  OF  THE  CORN 
ROOT  WORM 

Crop  rotation  entirely  prevents  this  in- 
jury as  the  corn  root  worm  feeds  only  on 
the  roots  of  the  corn  and  is  starved  out 
when  other  crops  are  sown. 


in  need  of  seed  corn  were  put 
in  touch  with  those  who  had 
more  than  they  needed.  A 
vigorous  campaign  for  the 
testing  of  seed  corn  was  car- 
ried on  through  the  schools. 
Seed  corn  was  secured  and 
tested,  and  the  acreage  was 
increased  about  5 per  cent. 
Owing  to  adverse  conditions 
of  weather  during  the  sum- 
mer and  early  fall,  less  than 
1 per  cent  of  the  crop  of  the 
past  season  fully  matured. 
About  52  per  cent  was  har- 
vested for  silage.  There  was 
saved  for  seed  corn  about 
100,000  bushels,  due  largely 
to  the  special  campaign  made 
by  the  agricultural  represen- 
tatives. 


SPRING  WHEAT  ACREAGE  INCREASED 

Vigorous  effort  was  made  in  cooperation  with  the  State  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  the  County  Councils  of  Defense 
to  assist  farmers  in  securing  the  necessary  supply  of  seed 
wheat  in  the  spring.  As  a result  an  increased  acreage  of  36 


G 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


per  cent  was  secured  with  an  increased  yield  of  55  per  cent. 
The  campaign  for  increasing  the  fall  wheat  acreage  resulted’  in 
an  increase  of  11  per  cent  and  the  fall  rye  acreage  was  in- 
creased 6 per  cent. 


SEED  POTATOES  DISTRIBUTED 


Similar  campaigns  were  instituted  in  a number  of  counties 
by  the  County  Representatives  to  supply  the  potato  seed  needs 

of  *the  state.  Over  200  car- 
loads of  seed  stock  were  dis- 
tributed through  the  medium 
of  the  State  Department  of 
Agriculture.  An  increased 
acreage  of  10  per  cent  was 
secured  which  resulted  in  a to- 
tal yield  of  36,420,000  bushels 
for  the  state,  about  7,000,000 
oushels  above  the  normal  crop. 
This  was  the  second  largest 
crop  ever  harvested  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  state. 

VIGOROUS  CAMPAIGN  INCREASES 
SILO  CONSTRUCTION 


PIG.  3.— THIS  SHOWS  PROGRESS 

Silos  to  save  corn,  and  lime  for  alfalfa 
are  urged  by  all  emergency  agents.  This  is 
a Green  county  result. 


A silo  campaign  was  car- 
ried on  during  the  early 
spring  and  summer.  Demon- 
stration meetings  were  held  in 
every  county  under  the  direc- 
tion and  with  the  assistance 
of  members  of  the  agricul- 
tural staff.  To  this  campaign  Wisconsin  newspapers  gave  lib- 
eral support.  The  banks  also  assisted  by  making  it  easier  for 
farmers  to  borrow  money  to  build  silos.  As  a result  of  this 
systematic  campaign,  about  10,000  additional  silos  were  built 
by  farmers  of  the  state  during  the  past  year.  This  record 
makes  the  aggregate  number  of  silos  in  the  state  about  70,000 
and  enables  Wisconsin  to  maintain  the  position  which  it  has  long 
held  of  having  more  silos  than  any  other  state  in  the  union. 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


7 


LAND  CLEARING  AUGMENTS  ACREAGE 

Sixteen  one-week  Land  Clearing  Demonstrations  aroused 
widespread  interest  among  farmers  and  other  settlers  in  up- 
per Wisconsin.  It  was  a practical  and  educational  campaign 
conducted  under  the  leadership  of  the  agricultural  college. 
The  efficiency  of  the  hand  and  power  stump  pullers  and  low 
grade  dynamite  in  land  clearing  was  demonstrated. 


FIG.  4.— WATCHING  NEW  CLEARING  METHODS 

The  acreage  of  farm  land  is  being  expanded  in  upper  Wisconsin  through  demonstrating 
to  the  settlers  better  and  easier  methods  of  clearing  the  fertile  soil. 

In  many  instances  several  farmers  joined  in  the  purchase  of 
a machine  and  are  using  it  jointly  on  a cooperative  plan  and 
whole  communities  united  in  the  purchase  of  dynamite  in  car- 
load lots.  It  was  clearly  demonstrated  that  the  combination 
of  the  machinery  (both  pullers  and  pilers)  and  dynamite  is 
the  most  efficient  method  of  clearing  land. 

REDISTRIBUTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  dairy  industry  is  undergoing  unusual  development  in 
this  state.  The  work  of  the  cow  testing  associations,  the  im- 
provement of  grade  stock  through  the  introduction  of  pure- 
bred sires,  the  raising  of  suitable  crops  for  feeding,  the  build- 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


ing  of  silos  and  the  construction  of  better  dairy  barns — all  of 
these  factors  have  brought  about  the  production  of  a more 
profitable  dairy  cow. 

As  a result,  Wisconsin  is  now  enjoying  a nation-wide  repu- 
tation for  its  livestock,  especially  in  the  dairying  field.  With 
the  assistance  of  the  county  agricultural  agents,  the  livestock 
associations,  and  other  extension  workers,  buyers  from  outside 
the  state  are  enabled  to  secure  purebred  and  high  grade  live- 
stock quickly  and  economically. 


fig.  5.— a virgin  soil  awaits  the  settler 

A typical  scene.  White  pine  stumps  on  clay  loam  soil  ready  for  stumping. 

In  one  county  alone,  18  carloads  of  heifer  calves  less  than  a 
year  old  were  sold  and  shipped  to  out-of-state  buyers.  From 
another  county  13  carloads  of  dairy  cows  were  exported.  A 
total  of  150  carloads  of  livestock  worth  approximately  $300,- 
000  was  marketed  in  this  manner  during  the  past  year. 
Every  effort  was  made  to  save  good  dairy  calves  from  slaugh- 
ter. 

The  early  freeze  and  the  consequent  injury  to  the  corn  crop 
forced  farmers  to  sell  their  pigs  before  they  were  ready  for 
market.  The  state  was  immediately  organized  for  the  trans- 
portation of  these  pigs  to  the  corn  belt  to  be  fed  out  on  the 
soft  corn  of  that  section.  As  a result  of  quick  and  effective 
organization  hundreds  of  cars  of  shipper  pigs  were  saved  from 
early  slaughter,  and  millions  of  pounds  of  pork  added  to  the 
nation’s  supply. 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


9 


FOOD  CONSERVATION  MEASURES  POPULAR 

Special  stress  has  been  laid  on  the  conservation  of  foods 
through  the  work  of  girls’  clubs  and  special  demonstration 
workers  in  home  economics. 

A large  number  of  canning  demonstrations  were  held 
throughout  the  state,  with  from  25  to  50  women  present  at 
each  meeting.  In  one  county  20,000  pounds  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables were  canned  during  the  summer.  Pears,  beans,  swiss 


FIG.  6.— STUMPING  DEMONSTRATIONS  INTEREST  SETTLERS 

As  a result  of  the  land-clearing  demonstration  at  Holcombe,  this  group  of  settlers  is 
cooperating  in  the  clearing  of  100  acres  this  year. 


chard,  blueberries,  rhubarb,  cauliflower,  carrots,  tomatoes, 
beets  and  other  fruits  and  vegetables  were  canned.  In  addi- 
tion, drying,  pickling,  and  preserving  were  widely  advocated. 

The  department  of  home  economics  early  in  the  year  began 
advocating  the  use  of  war  breads  and  by  bulletins,  lectures, 
and  demonstrations  secured  their  wide-spread  adoption  and 
use. 

PUBLICATION  ISSUED  AS  RESULT  OF  WAR  CONDITIONS 

The  publications  issued  by  the  College  of  Agriculture  as  a 
result  of  war  conditions  include  24  circulars,  8 emergency 
posters,  5 stencil  bulletins  and  8 miscellaneous  pamphlets,  rep- 
resenting a total  of  1,226,000  pieces  of  matter  distributed 
among  tfhe  people  of  the  state. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


Circulars 

62  A Farmer’s  Poultry  House 

63  The  Care  of  Milk  and  Cream  on  the  Farm 

64  Have  You  Had  Your  Soil  Analyzed? 

65  Sewing-  for  Girls 

66  Crate-Feeding  Poultry  for  Market 

67  Cow  Testing  Pays 

68  Canning  for  Pleasure  and  Profit 

69  What  to  Feed  the  Children 

70  Fight  Fire  Blight  of  Apple 

71  Grow  Beans 

72  Have  a Backyard  Garden 


FIG.  7.-POSTERIZING  GREEN  COUNTY 

Posters,  bulletins  and  circulars  have  been  effective  tools  for  County  Agents  and 
Emergency  Food  Agents  in  their  work. 


73  Start  a Flock 

74  Preserve  Spring  Eggs  for  Winter  Use 

75  Why  Buckwheat 

76  Getting  the  Farm  Work  Done 

77  Drain  the  Wet  Spots 

78  Kill  the  Worms  and  Save  the  Apples 

79  How  to  Cook  Soybeans 

80  How  to  Use  Barley 

81  The  Moisture  Test  in  the  Cheese  Factory 

82  Defend  Your  Garden  Against  Insect  Pests 

83  Fighting  the  “Potato  Bug” 

84  Cultivation  Counts 

85  Stack  First — Then  Thresh 

Stencil  bulletins 

15  Sheep  Raising  Pays 

16  The  Moisture  Content  of  Wisconsin  Cheese  in  1916 

17  Why  and  How  to  Disinfect  Seed  Potatoes 

18  Suggestions  for  Planning  the  Home  Grounds 

19  Growing  Potatoes  in  the  Garden  and  on  City  Lots 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


11 


Emergency  posters 

1 Serve  the  Nation 

2 America  Needs  Wheat 

3 Have  a Back  Yard  Garden 

4 An  Army  of  Poultry  Will  Help  Win  the  War 

5 An  Acre  of  Roots  Will  Help  Winter  Your  Stock 

6 Build  a Silo 

Leaflets  and  folders 

Defend  Your  Dairy  Profits — Build  a Silo 

Fresh  Eggs 

Keep  Milk  Cool  and  Clean 

Profitable  Mutton  and  Wool  Production 

Potato  Improvement  Work 

J.  G.  Mil  ward  (horticulture)  has  concentrated  his  entire 
energies  on  potato  improvement  0work  and  with  the  assistance 
which  he  has  been  able  to  secure  as  secretary  of  the  State  Po- 
tato Growers’  association  from  the  commercial  growers,  as 
well  as  the  dealers,  great  advance  has  been  made  in  this  state 
in  the  last  .five  years.  Many  county  and  community  growers’ 
associations  have  been  organized  which  have  for  their  object 
the  elimination  of  the  numerous  undesirable  strains  of  seed 
stock.  Today  whole  communities  are  growing  pure  strains  of 
two  or  three  varieties  selected  with  special  reference  to  soil 
and  climatic  conditions,  thus  doing  for  the  potato  industry 
what  purebred  cattle  and  pedigreed  seed  have  accomplished 
for  the  development  of  livestock  and  grain. 

Potato  clubs  have  been  formed  in  the  schools.  Spraying 
demonstrations  and  special  potato  meetings  have  been  held  at 
more  than  40  points  and  attended  by  3,500  growers.  The  an- 
nual convention  of  the  Potato  Growers’  association  was  held 
this  year  at  the  University.  In  spite  of  the  severe  freeze 
which  seriously  injured  the  crop  in  many  sections,  the  potato 
show  was  the  best  ever  held  in  the  state. 

CERTIFICATION  OF  POTATO  SEED  STOCK 

During  the  year  applications  were  received  from  172  growers 
to  have  their  fields  of  seed  stock  inspected  for  certification. 
The  cost  of  this  inspection  is  charged  to  the  growers  benefited, 
the  same  as  in  the  official  testing  of  dairy  cattle.  Eighty-two 
certificates  certifying  that  their  inspected  stock  was  not  only 
pure  as  to  variety,  but  free  from  disease  were  granted  to  the 
growers. 


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POTATO  DISEASE  CONTROL 

Supplementing  the  cultural  and  seed  improvement  has  been 
the  very  active  work  of  the  plant  pathology  department  in  the 
control  of  potato  diseases. 

Reports  from  82  farmers  who  treated  their  seed  this  year 
with  either  formaldehyde  or  corrosive  sublimate  show,  where 
there  was  an  opportunity  for  field  comparison,  that  a better 
stand  was  obtained  in  22  cases,  while  in  33  fields  no  difference 
was  observed. 


PIG.  8— AN  EFFECTIVE  SPRAY  ATTACK 

The  spraying  of  potatoes  against  bugs  and  blight  is  one  of  the  most  important  food 
conservation  measures. 


Treated  and  untreated  seed  was  planted  side  by  side  on  the 
same  kind  of  soil  and  handled  in  the  same  way.  The  crop 
from  the  treated  seed  gave  very  little  scab  and  only  slight  in- 
fections, while  the  crop  from  the  untreated  seed  was  very 
scabby  (about  40  per  cent)  and  the  spots  very  deep.  In  only 
one  case  was  there  a poorer  stand  where  the  seed  was  treated. 

Orchard  Management  Demonstration 

Work  has  been  continued  this  year  on  demonstrating  and 
showing  the  advantage  of  spraying  and  pruning  orchards  and 
special  field  instruction  has  been  given  in  packing  methods 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


13 


with  R.  H.  Roberts  (horticulture)  in  charge.  It  is  significant 
that  spraying  machines  have  been  purchased  in  nine  different 
communities  as  a direct  result  of  these  meetings. 

The  apple  shipping  centers  of  Bayfield  and  Sturgeon  Bay  are 
evincing  a 'healthy  desire  to  improve  the  quality  of  their  fruit 
pack.  Packing  demonstrations,  both  barrel  and  box  packs, 
were  given  at  both  these  places  and  at  Gays  Mills. 

Start  Landscape  Design  Work 

A beautiful  environment  exerts  a subtle  influence  on  the  up- 
building of  character  and  has  a far  reaching  effect  on  the  ru- 
ral life  of  the  state. 

With  the  addition  of  our  force  of  F.  A.  Aust,  our  horticul- 
ture department  has  been  able  to  meet  the  increasing  demand 
for  aid  in  the  problems  of  beautifying  the  surroundings  of  t'he 
home.  This  line  of  extension  activity  was  organized  to  give 
farmers  and  others  of  the  state  assistance  in  beautifying  their 
farm  surroundings  and  aid  in  making  their  homes  more  attrac- 
tive. Illustrated  lectures  have  been  given  in  ten  different 
cities.  Planting  plans  for  public  buildings  have  been  furn- 
ished for  demonstration  purposes  to  five  localities. 

Testing  For  Tuberculosis  on  Increase 

Year  by  year  there  is  a steady  growth  in  the  demand  for  tu- 
berculin which  is  made  for  diagnostic  purposes  by  the  depart- 
ment of  bacteriology  and  is  utilized  in  cooperation  with  the 
veterinary  division  of  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture 
as  well  as  special  tuberculins  for  the  optthalmic,  intradermal 
and  avian  tests.  In  1914—15,  51,300  doses  were  furnished  the 
state  department;  last  year  77,500  doses;  while  this  year  106,- 
250  doses,  over  37  per  cent  increase  over  the  high  figure  of  the 
previous  year,  were  used  by  them. 

Particular  efforts  have  been  made  to  keep  tuberculosis  out 
of  the  rapidly  developing  dairy  region  of  upper  Wisconsin. 
The  agricultural  representatives  in  12  counties  tested  1,740 
head  last  year  and  found  only  15  reactors.  In  one  county 
where  10  reactors  were  discovered  six  were  found  in  pure- 
bred herds,  showing  how  the  purchase  of  improved  stock  is 
the  entering  wedge  through  which  this  disease  is  insidiously 
forcing  its  way  into  the  new  north. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


If  general  testing  can  be  'had  in  this  region,  the  breeders  in 
that  section  will  soon  be  able  to  reap  the  very  considerable  ad- 
vantage which  will  come  from  their  ability  to  advertise  dairy 
stock  from  a tuberculin  tested  region. 

Examination  of  Pathological  Specimens 

The  veterinarians  of  the  state  are  making  ever  increasing 
use  of  the  facilities  of  the  veterinary  science  department  lab- 
oratory for  the  examination  of  specimens,  and  the  diagnosis  of 
animal  diseases.  During  the  year  318  samples  have  been  ex- 
amined, an  increase  of  60  per  cent  over  that  of  the  preceding 
year.  One  hundred  and  forty-two  veterinarians,  or  nearly  40 
per  cent  of  the  entire  profession  of  the  state,  availed  them- 
selves of  the  laboratory,  for  the  examination  of  pathological 
specimens,  the  testing  for  contagious  abortion,  or  the  applica- 
tion of  hog  cholera  serum.  One  case  of  importance  to  the  hu- 
man developed  in  a sample  of  tissue  suspected  of  anthrax, 
in  which  the  attending  veterinarian  acquired  a severe  infec- 
tion. On  the  strength  of  the  diagnosis,  anti-ant'hra!  serum 
was  utilized  with  success. 

Hog  Cholera  Serum  Production 

Hog  cholera  serum  to  the  amount  of  1,020,260  cubic  centime- 
ters has  been  produced  by  the  veterinary  science  depart- 
ment during  the  year,  870,460  cubic  centimeters  having  been 
sold  and  used  in  connection  with  the  preventive  treatment  of 
this  disease  on  over  20,000  head  of  swine.  The  business  trans- 
acted in  the  sale  of  the  serum  and  by-products  amounted  to 
$15,329.81. 

Owing  to  the  sharp  advance  in  the  price  of  pigs  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  hog  cholera  serum,  it  was  necessary  to  raise 
the  price  of  this  material  to  cover  the  cost  of  production. 

Surface  Drainage,  a Wartime  Necessity 

Special  emphasis  this  summer  has  been  given  to  the  matter 
of  surface  drainage  on  account  of  its  immediate  influence  on 
the  productivity  of  wet  clays.  O.  R.  Zeasman  (soils)  spent 
two  weeks  in  the  flat  country  in  Wood,  Chippewa,  and  Mara- 
thon counties,  demonstrating  the  use  of  the  Y-shaped  ditcher. 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


15 


As  a result,  four  communities  have  purchased  machines,  thus 
equipping  themselves  to  make  surface  runs  as  outlets  for  dead 
furrows  to  be  used  in  connection  with  fall  plowing.  A steady 
increase  in  the  use  of  tile  where  demonstrations  under  farm 
drainage  conditions  have  been  held,  is  noted.  At  Wayauwega 
more  than  ten  carloads  of  tile  have  been  laid  as  a direct  result 
of  a tile  system  installed  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Wall. 

Owing  to  the  shortage  of  labor  at  present,  the  development 
of  large  areas  of  marsh  land  which  requires  expensive  opera- 
tions for  ditching  and  tiling  is  likely  to  be  delayed.  But  the 
importance  of  securing  good  surface  drainage  on  all  lands  un- 
der cultivation  is  even  greater  than  under  normal  conditions. 


fig.  9. — limestone  to  cure  sour  soils 

Where  the  haul  from  the  railway  is  long:  the  grinding  of  limestone  in  local  quarries 
is  the  cheapest  way  to  secure  lime  for  sour  soils.  The  Emergency  Agent  in  Green  county 
located  several  of  these  rich,  high-test  limestone  quarries. 


TILE  DRAINAGE  RECLAIMS  IDLE  ACRES 

Tile  drainage  has  now  developed  to  such  an  extent  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  state  that  further  demonstrations  in 
this  section  do  not  appear  to  be  necessary.  This  year  emphasis 
has  been  laid  upon  the  work  particularly  in  the  northern  and 
central  parts  of  the  state,  where  the  farmers  have  not  previ- 
ously given  much  attention  to  this  form  of  land  reclamation. 


16  Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 

Interest  in  drainage  in  Waupaca,  Outagamie,  Green  Lake,  Fond 
du  Lac,  Dodge,  and  Columbia  counties  is  particularly  keen. 

Sixty- three  farm  projects  have  been  undertaken,  involving 
a preliminary  survey  in  51  cases  aggregating  2,700  acres  and 
12  final  surveys  of  280  acres.  Assistance  has  been  given  to  42 
organizations  during  the  year ; in  12  cases  preliminary  surveys 
have  been  made,  involving  the  improvement  of  14,500  acres, 
and  26  .field  examinations  of  old  and  new  organizations,  em- 
bracing over  40,000  acres.  As  required  by  law,  reports  on  the 
soil  and  drainage  conditions  have  been  prepared  in  17  drainage 
districts.  Fifty-eight  meetings  have  been  held  with  an  at- 
tendance of  3,400  people,  at  which  discussion  of  drainage  work 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  has  been  presented.  Twenty-three 
follow-up  demonstrations  with  an  attendance  of  350  farmers, 
have  been  given  in  the  field,  for  direct  observation  of  the  bene- 
fits of  tile  drainage  system  which  had  been  installed  the  previ- 
ous year.  * 

Soil  Examinations  Tell  Soil  Troubles 

During  the  year  the  State  Soils  Laboratory  (A.  R.  Whitson 
in  charge)  has  made  336  analyses  of  soil  samples  requiring 
1,367  determinations.  These  samples  were  collected  from  154 
different  farms  which  have  applied  for  this  service. 

This  work  has  been  found  very  helpful  in  connection  with 
the  other  extension  and  research  work  of  the  college.  In  a 
tiumber  of  cases  examination  has  been  made  at  the  request  of 
prospective  purchasers  who  have  availed  themselves  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  laboratory  to  secure  reliable  information  re- 
garding the  character  and  value  of  the  soil. 

Soil  Management 

The  problems  of  soil  management  continue  to  employ  a large 
part  of  the  time  of  the  soils  department.  Efforts  this  past  year 
have  been  specificially  directed  toward  the  organization  of  com- 
munity clubs  that  have  for  their  specific  object  the  considera- 
tion of  soil  improvement  problems.  In  the  southern  part  of 
the  state  W.  W.  Weir  has  given  special  attention  to  the. 
use  of  lime  as  a corrective  of  soil  acidity.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Prairie  du  Chien  pulverized  clam  shells  as  a source  of  lime  are 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


17 


now  employed.  Heretofore  these  have  been  considered  as  a 
waste  product,  but  their  value  in  improving  the  condition  of 
the  soil  as  a prerequisite  to  successful  alfalfa  growing  indi- 
cates that  from  now  on  they  will  be  utilized  for  the  correction 
of  soil  acidity.  At  Edgerton,  Sinsinawa,  and  Rock  Prairie, 
through  the  medium  of  cooperative  effort,  farmers  have  pur- 
chased machinery  for  crushing  and  pulverizing  local  limestone, 
which  is  abundant  and  is  much  needed  to  counteract  the  acidity 
of  the  soils  in  these  sections. 


fig.  io.— truog  soil  tester  forms  part  of  field  equipment 

The  emergency  food  agents  have  found  the  Truog  soil  acidity  test  a valuable  aid.  The 
small  tester  is  a most  essential  part  of  his  outfit  in  the  field. 


F.  L.  Musbach  has  had  charge  of  the  work  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  state  and  has  carried  on  nine  indi- 
vidual demonstration  plots  from  a half  acre  to  one  acre  in  ex- 
tent, aimed  to  demonstrate  specific  lines  of  soil  treatment,  such 
as  the  use  of  phosphatic  fertilizers,  either  with  or  without 
stable  manure  and  lime  treatment. 

Seven  larger  demonstration  areas  have  also  been  instituted 
where  a more  or  less  complete  series  of  fertilizer  demonstra- 
tions have  been  carried  out  on  a wide  range  of  soils,  varying 
from  crude  peat  to  newly  drained  land  and  the  light  sandy 
soils  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Hayward  and  in  portions  of  Bar- 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


ron  county.  While  the  price  of  fertilizer  at  the  present  time  is 
unusually  high  on  account  of  the  war,  very  profitable  returns 
have  been  secured  where  even  limited  amounts  of  chemical  fer- 
tilizer were  employed.  At  Phillips  200  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate and  150  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash  on  potatoes  in- 
creased the  crop  from  258  to  396  bushels  an  acre,  or  138  bushels 
at  a cash  outlay  for  fertilizers  of  $11.28  an  acre.  It  was  note- 
worthy that  the  percentage  of  cull  stock  was  twice  as  much  in 
the  unfertilized  as  in  the  fertilized  field.  On  sandy  soil  at  Han- 
cock where  the  check  plots  produced  only  4%  bushels  of  rye  to 
the  acre,  an  application  of  fertilizer  costing  $4.50  an  acre  re- 
sulted in  an  increase  to  15  bushels  an  acre. 

As  a result  of  these  and  other  demonstrations  many  carloads 
of  lime  and  fertilizers  have  been  purchased  by  farmers.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  Almond  six  carloads  were  shipped  in  and 
over  100  acres  of  alfalfa  have  been  started  as  a result  of  the 
work  done  last  year. 

In  all,  64  demonstrations  were  held  with  a total  attendance 
of  9,100  people. 

Farmers’  Meetings  Continue  in  Popularity 

The  activities  of  the  Farmers’  Institutes  under  the  superin- 
tendent, E.  L.  Luther,  and  his  staff  have  been  more  widely  ex- 
tended and  specialized  this  year  than  ever  before.  Besides 
the  regular  two-day  institutes,  of  which  126  were  field  with  an 
aggregate  attendance  of  63,770  people,  52  women’s  meetings 
and  17  one-day  institutes  have  been  carried  on,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, special  feature  institutes  embracing  the  consideration  of 
the  problems  incident  to  the  light  sandy  soils  in  the  central 
part  of  the  state,  drainage,  livestock,  and  cowt  testing  meetings. 
During  the  summer,  field  demonstration  meetings  have  been  ex- 
tensively carried  on  and  403  meetings  of  various  types  embrac- 
ing an  attendance  of  108,700  people  have  been  had.  The  spe- 
cial feature  meetings  have  been  found  to  be  of  particular 
value.  They  focus  the  attention  of  the  community  on  a single 
problem  chosen  with  particular  reference  to  the  needs  of  t'he 
section.  As  a result  of  the  interest  taken  in  alfalfa  work  at 
Friendship,  Adams  county,  the  winter  before,  nine  farmers  se- 
cured lime  and  planted  alfalfa  on  properly  neutralized  and 
prepared  soil.  During  the  summer  field  meetings  were  held 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


19 


on  the  farms  where  this  work  had  been  done  so  that  all  could 
see  just  how  successful  the  treatment  had  been  in  the  commu- 
nity. Many  community  organizations  (farmers’  clubs,  grow- 
ers’ organizations  of  special  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  baby  beef, 
cow  testing  and  poultry)  have  developed  as  an  outgrowth  of 
the  institute  work. 

Farmers’  and  Womens’  Weeks 

The  Farmers’  and  Womens’  weeks  fully  described  in  our 
last  report  have  continued  to  grow  in  influence  and  favor,  un- 


FIG.  11— INDIANS  BELIEVE  IN  BETTER  FARMING 

The  original  owners  of  America  are  helping  win  the  war  by  studying  and  practicing 
better  methods  of  agriculture. 


der  the  active  leadership  of  R.  F.  Murray  for  the  men  and  Miss 
Agnes  Boeing  for  the  women.  There  were  held  during  the 
season  just  closed  a total  of  24  one-week  meetings  for  farmers 
and  18  meetings  of  the  same  length  for  the  farmers’  wives  and 
daughters,  attended  by  more  than  28,000  people.  This  repre- 
sents an  increase  of  28  per  cent  in  number  and  30  per  cent  in 
active  interest  over  last  year. 

The  Indian  Farmers’  Institutes  have  continued  to  grow  in 
popularity.  Meetings  were  held  at  the  Menomonie  and  Bad 
River  reservations  and  at  Mauston  and  Black  River  Falls, 
which  were  attended  by  500  Indians. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


Boys’  and  Girls’  Clubs  Aid  Food  Production  Campaign 

Nine  hundred  young  people  were  enrolled  in  the  acre  corn 
growing  projects  carried  out  in  the  Boys’  and  Girls’  Club  work 
in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, (T.  L.  Bewick  in  charge  of  boys’  clubs  and  Miss  Eliza- 
beth Amery,  of  girls’  clubs.)  Though  results  came  to  almost 
nothing  because  of  the  early  freeze,  several  of  these  young 
people  succeeded  in  maturing  and  saving  a considerable  quan- 
tity of  good  seed  com. 


FIG.  12.— AWAITING  THEIR  TURN 

Boys’  and  Girls’  club  members  watching  the  seniors  marching  to  receive  their  diplomas. 
The  club  members  gather  each  June  at  the  College. 


For  the  first  time  in  Wisconsin,  Junior  Farmers’  Institutes  ! 
were  carried  on  in  six  different  localities.  At  Sturgeon  Bay, 
an  average  of  250  boys  and  girls  attended  each  session.  Coun- 
try schools  were  dismissed  and  some  children  drove  20  miles 
to  be  in  attendance  at  this  institute. 

The  young  people’s  department  at  the  State  Fair  showed  a 
gain  of  300  per  cent  in  quantity  of  exhibits  and  a marked  ad- 
vance in  quality. 

In  addition,  1,886  young  people  completed  the  growing  of 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


21 


y$  of  an  acre  or  more  of  potatoes,  1,624  completed  home  garden 
projects,  603  girls  canned  $6,407  worth  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, 2,556  carried  on  alfalfa  work,  811  members  raised  $11,- 
235  worth  of  poultry,  34  members  raised  62,800  pounds  of  baby 
beef,  88  members  fed  231  dairy  calves,  164  boys  and  girls  pro- 
duced about  30,000  pounds  of  pork,  1,138  girls  competed  in 
bread  club  work,  558  competed  in  garment  making,  and  149 
enrolled  in  strawberry  clubs. 

Altogether  6,230  young  people  completed  all  the  work  out- 
lined for  the  club  to  which  they  belonged  and  produced  or 
saved  food  products  aggregating  a total  of  over  $120,000. 

Livestock  Improvement  Grows  Apace 

In  no  state  of  the  Union  are  the  agricultural  organizations 
more  closely  united  in  the  common  object  of  promoting  the 
best  interest  of  agriculture.  No  energy  is  misspent  on  dupli- 
cation of  effort,  and  through  cooperation  of  the  College,  the 
Wisconsin  Live  Stock  Breeders’  association,  the  Wisconsin  Dairy- 
men’s association,  and  the  various  breed  associations,  it  has 
been  possible  to  secure  results  that  no  one  organization  could 
have  accomplished  alone. 

OFFICIAL  TESTS  INCREASE 

The  official  testing  of  dairy  cattle,  in  charge  of  Roy  Harris 
(animal  husbandry),  continues  to  increase  in  amount.  Dur- 
ing the  peak  load  in  the  winter,  5 men  were  at  work.  Eighty- 
.five  hundred  tests  were  made  on  2,940  animals.  The  cost  of 
this  service  is  defrayed  by  fees  received  from  the  breeders 
themselves. 

breeders’  associations  are  organized 

Community  organization  still  continues  to  be  the  main  ef- 
fort of  Wisconsin  dairymen.  The  obvious  advantage  of  a col- 
lective movement  where  an  entire  community  bands  itself  to- 
gether to  advance  one  particular  breed  of  livestock  is  being 
recognized  better  each  year.  Cattle  owners  find  it  greatly  to 
their  advantage  to  join  these  associations  as  each  member 
gains  in  advertising  prestige  through  this  community  move- 
ment. 

Wisconsin  has  jumped  to  the  front  as  the  leading  Guernsey 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


state,  and  Waukesha  county  found  herself  possessing  over  40 
per  cent  of  all  the  cattle  of  this  breed  in  the  state,  a much  larg- 
er number,  even,  than  in  the  mother  island  of  Guernsey.  At 
the  present  time  120  special  breeders’  associations  (53  Holstein; 
43  Guernsey;  20  Jersey;  4 Shorthorn)  have  been  formed,  and 
also  14  general  livestock  groups,  19  draft  horse  and  3 swine 
associations. 

With  the  economic  impulse  which  these  associations  develop, 
many  of  these  organizations  have  taken  up  cognate  problems 
such  as  cooperative  purchase  of  feeds,  disease  eradication,  ru- 
ral credits,  farm  home  betterment,  and  other  noteworthy  pro- 
jects, that  have  aided  in  making  a better  agriculture.  Indeed 
it  may  be  said  that  through  this  and  related  mediums,  organ- 
ized agriculture  has  become  the  dominant  policy  of  Wisconsin 
farmers. 

While  the  dairy  cow  will  naturally  receive  the  major  part  of 
the  attention  of  Wisconsin  farmers,  special  effort  has  been 
made  this  year  to  give  an  impetus  to  the  development  of  other 
lines  of  livestock,  particularly  sheep,  beef,  and  swine. 

HOLD  SHEEP  GROWERS’  MEETINGS 

The  “ golden  hoof”  used  to  be  popular  in  our  Wisconsin 
farms,  but  of  late  years  wider  opportunity  on  the  western 
ranges  has  led  to  a decline  in  sheep  production.  However, 
conditions  have  undergone  a radical  change  and  with  the 
opening  of  large  areas  of  available  pasture  on  the  cheaper 
lands  in  upper  Wisconsin  and  the  breaking  up  of  the  western 
ranges,  Wisconsin  farmers  are  again  becoming  interested  in  the 
sheep  industry.  Twenty-eight  special  sheep  meetings  have 
been  held  by  Frank  Kleinheinz  (animal  husbandry)  princi- 
pally on  farms  where  sheep  are  actually  being  kept.  They 
have  stimulated  greatly  the  interest  in  this  industry  and  the 
coming  year  will  see  in  Wisconsin  more  feeding  of  western 
lambs  and  ewes  and  more  breeding  of  flocks  than  for  many 
years  in  the  past. 

STIMULATE  BABY  BEEF  PRODUCTION 

In  cooperation  with  the  state  livestock  breeders’  association 
special  emphasis  has  also  been  placed  on  the  production  of 
baby  beef.  Interest  was  first  stimulated  through  the  medium 
of  beef  institutes.  This  was  followed  by  the  organization  of 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


23 


Baby  Beef  contests  in  whic'h  farm  boys  were  encouraged  to 
feed  and  care  for  the  growing  animal.  Interest  was  devel- 
oped by  holding  local  contests  at  the  county  fairs,  and  a state 
contest  in  which  26  boys  competed  was  held  at  the  University 
in  November.  The  quality  of  the  show  is  attested  by  the  fact 
that  the  winner  here  was  placed  as  junior  calf  champion  at  the 
International  Livestock  show  at  Chicago  a few  weeks  later. 


FIG.  13.— the  nation  needs  more  wool 
The  settler  needs  more  cleared  land.  Sheep  on  cutover  land  supply  both  needs. 


FOCUS  ON  SWINE  PRODUCTION 

Special  efforts  were  made  this  past  year  to  focus  attention 
on  the  matter  of  increased  swine  production.  At  the  Farmers  ’ 
Course  in  February  this  was  made  the  dominant  feature  and 
through  special  educational  exhibits  and  sales  of  purebred 
stock,  the  attention  of  farmers  was  specifically  directed  to 
pork  production.  Under  the  conditions  in  which  we  now  find 
ourselves  in  this  war,  this  matter  is  assuming  a much  greater 
importance,  for  the  world’s  supply  of  fats  is  being  greatly  less- 
ened. 

LIVESTOCK  EXCHANGE 

The  college  has  aided  greatly  in  promoting  the  sale  of  much 
livestock  both  within  and  without  the  state.  Through  the  de- 
velopment of  the  county  agent  movement  and  the  boys’  and 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


girls’  clubs  in  all  part  of  the  Union,  much  attention  is  being 
given  to  dairy  cattle  improvement.  Scarcely  a week  passes  in 
which  committees  of  buyers  are  not  visiting  the  College  to  lo- 
cate car  lots  of  dairy  heifers  and  calves.  These  are  going  in 
constantly  increasing  numbers  to  the  Mississippi  Valley  states 
and  throughout  the  West.  R.  F.  Murray  (extension  service) 
has  spent  much  of  his  time  this  past  year  in  bringing  the  pros- 
pective out-of-state  buyer  and  the  Wisconsin  breeder  together. 

Wisconsin  Dairy  Herds  Selected  For  Service 

Eighty-one  cow  testing  associations  in  which  40,000  cows 
are  being  “drafted  for  selective  service”  on  2,417  farms  of 
the  state,  is  Wisconsin’s  answer  to  the  call  for  improved  pro- 
duction. This  work,  supervised  by  H.  C.  Searles  and  Noel 
Neglev,  is  carried  on  jointly  by  the  animal  husbandry  depart- 
ment, the  state  dairymen’s  association  and  the  dairy  division  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

In  these  days  when  the  need  of  labor  is  so  keen,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  each  herd  be  brought  to  maximum  effi- 
ciency. Thirty-seven  new  testing  associations  have  been  added 
this  year  to  the  54  already  in  existence.  The  constant  sifting 
process  is  teaching  the  dairy  farmer  to  weed  out  the  profitless 
cows.  In  the  month  of  August  alone  101  cows  were  rejected 
as  “slackers.”  Five  per  cent  of  the  entire  list  under  test  made 
a record  of  over  40  pounds  of  butterfat  during  this  same  month, 
an  especially  good  record  considering  the  fact  that  August  is 
the  low  ebb  of  milk  production. 

In  order  to  drive  home  the  lesson  most  effectively,  exhibits 
of  the  banner  animals  in  the  respective  testing  associations 
have  been  made  at  the  state  fair  and  at  eight  county  fairs. 
These  have  been  instrumental  in  attracting  much  interest 
among  dairymen  and  will  undoubtedly  stimulate  the  organi- 
zation of  additional  associations. 

As  the  Holstein  Friesian  World  recently  said  editorially: 

“The  cow  testers  of  Wisconsin  have  been  doing  a won- 
derful work  during  the  past  year  and  this  work  has  been 
far  more  comprehensive  than  just  merely  testing  the  cows 
for  butterfat  production.  It  is  truly  interesting  to  note 
what  the  tester  can  accomplish  when  he  undertakes  to 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


25 


turn  his  efforts  to  the  best  purpose  along  all  lines.  Some 
have  carried  on  campaigns  of  cleanliness  all  through  the 
dairy  barns  in  their  association.  Others  have  sought  to 
make  the  farms  more  productive  by  analyzing  the  soil  and 
returning  what  is  most  necessary.” 

This  work  results  directly  in  marked  financial  advantage  to 
the  herd  owners.  F.  G.  Swoboda,  secretary  of  the  Langlade 
association,  says:  “I  took  a buyer  out  to  see  some  grade  Jer- 


FIG.  17—  MOBILIZED  FOR  SELECTIVE  SERVICE 

Young  Wisconsin  cows  which  will  be  sent  to  the  dairy  front  in  the  Southwest.  These 
are  part  of  a trainload. 


seys  belonging  to  one  of  our  members  who  has  been  in  the  as- 
sociation three  years.  The  buyer  got  four  cows  at  prices  av- 
eraging $60  a 'head  better  than  the  member  of  the  association 
would  have  been  willing  to  take  for  them  had  these  cows  not 
been  tested.” 

Harvey  Little  of  Janseville  says,  “The  cow  testing  associa- 
tion records  of  my  herd  increased  the  price  I received  for  my 
bulls  $100  a head.” 

Not  only  is  there  this  direct  financial  advantage,  but  the 
field  testers  are  able  to  save  the  farmers  many  thousands  of 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


dollars  through  better  rations  and  the  cooperative  purchase  of 
feeds.  One  Association  writes 

“We  figure  it  saved  $1,800  on  our  feed  bill.  During 
the  early  part  of  last  summer  16  associations  bought  about 
1,000  tons  of  feed.  The  fieldman  reports  ‘Most  of  these 
purchases  were  made  by  giving  the  local  dealer  a small 
commission  per  ton  for  handling  the  order,  the  farmers 
paying  cash  and  taking  the  feed  from  the  car.  In  other 
cases  the  secretary  or  a committee  on  feeds  handled  the  or- 
der direct’.” 

Inoculation  of  Peas  Increases  Production 

A striking  instance  of  increased  production  has  been  made 
this  last  season  by  E.  B.  Fred  (bacteriology)  who  sent  to  the 
canning  company  of  Holmen  artificial  cultures  of  bacteria  for 
inoculating  canning  peas.  Seed  sufficient  to  inoculate  about 
100  acres  was  treated  and  planted  on  light  sandy  as  well  as 
heavy  clay  loams.  A most  striking  difference  was  noted  in  the 
case  of  practically  all  fields  grown  on  the  lighter  soils  as  is  to 
be  seen  from  figure  15.  In  nearly  all  cases  peas  grown 
on  sand3r  soils  were  yellowish  green  in  color  and  devoid 
of  nodules  on  roots,  and  they  produced  one  or  two  pods  con- 
taining only  2 or  3 inferior  sized  peas,  while  the  inoculated 
seed  without  exception  grew  vines  of  healthy  dark  green  color, 
two  feet  or  more  in  length,  and  produced  4 or  5 pods  to  the 
plant  with  4 to  6 peas  each.  The  root  systems  invariably  had 
large  nodular  growths  which  furnished  the  necessary  nitro- 
gen to  account  for  the  difference. 

On  the  heavier  soils  these  striking  differences  did  not  exist 
as  the  uninoculated  soil  naturally  contained  the  proper  bacteria 
to  induce  nodule  production. 

On  substantially  all  of  the  acreage  planted  on  the  lighter 
soil  type,  the  increased  yield  produced  by  the  inoculation  alone 
was  from  four  to  ten-fold.  So  keen  a demand  has  developed 
for  cultures,  that  the  bacteriology  department  has  arranged 
to  supply  farmers  this  coming  season  with  legume  cultures  at 
cost  of  preparation.  This  is  a practical  means  of  increasing 
production  at  practically  no  expense,  not  even  for  labor. 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time  27 


FIG.  15. — THE  EFFECT  OF  INOCULATION  ON  FIELD  PEAS 
1.  Uninoculated.  2.  Inoculated. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


« 


Millers  and  Bankers  Cooperate  With  College  in  Bread  Drive 


On  July  20  the  Wisconsin  Millers’  association  held  its  annual 
meeting  at  Neenah.  The  millers  devoted  a considerable  part 
of  their  program  to  discussions  relative  to  food  production  and 
food  supply  and  to  related  agricultural  interests.  They  are 
vitally  interested  in  the  production  of  wheat  and  rye  and  they 
had  R.  A. * Moore  (agronomy)  discuss  with  them  the  various 


C0MM0H  VAWmES. 

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&RAJN  OYEB  SWING  MAIN 

YIELDS  MOOT  S»E»  ACRE. 
ESCAPES  DISEASE  k SLIGHT. 
DISTRIBUTES  LABOR  BETTER 

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SAVES  AU  FERTILITY  [ 
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WHO  EATS  WHEAT 

it 

CANADA  9.5 1 
BElGIVM  8.3 
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FIG.  16.— HOW  THE  MILLERS  COOPERATED  WITH  THE  COLLEGE 
The  drive  for  more  wheat  resulted  in  a greatly  increased  acreage. 


ways  in  which  they  could  aid  in  encouraging  larger  and  more 
economical  production  of  bread  crops.  One  item  of  publicity 
suggested  to  the  millers  was  the  placing  at  their  local  county 
fairs  of  exhibits  calling  attention  to  the  food  situation  in  gen- 
eral, to  the  necessity  and  advantages  of  increased  production 
of  flour  crops,  and  to  the  various  means  helpful  in  securing  this 
increase.  This  suggestion  was  put  in  concrete  form  by  such  an 
exhibit  placed  by  the  Agricultural  College  in  the  assembly 
hall  where  the  meeting  was  held. 

As  a result  of  this  suggestion  the  Wisconsin  Millers’  asso- 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


29 


ciation  provided  a similar  but  more  complete  exhibit  which 
was  displayed  by  local  millers  at  the  fairs  in  Lincoln,  Mara- 
thon, Portage,  and  Dunn  counties.  Keen  interest  in  this  ex- 
hibit gave  the  millers  opportunity  to  use  their  influence  in  se- 
curing an  increased  acreage  in  flour-producing  crops. 

BANKERS  LEAD  IN  PEDIGREE  WHEAT  DISTRIBUTION 

About  four  years  ago  the  agronomy  department  began  dis- 
tributing from  the  Experiment  Station  farms  two  pedigreed 
varieties  of  winter  wheat.  In  tests  covering  a period  of  years 
these  pedigree  wheats  had  yielded  on  the  station  farms  an  av- 
erage of  more  than  thirty-five  bushels  an  acre,  while  the  yield 
and  quality  of  flour  proved  to  be  considerably  above  that  of 
other  wheats  with  which  they  have  been  compared  in  milling 
and  baking  tests. 

As  a means  of  increasing  the  wheat  production  of  the  state, 
the  growing  of  the  high  yielding  varieties  is  a most  important 
factor.  While  the  acreage  which  can  be  profitably  planted 
to  wheat  is  limited  by  t'he  demands  of  other  important  and 
necessary  crops,  increased  production  is  still  possible  from 
higher  yields  due  to  the  use  of  purebred  seed.  This  affords 
another  solution  of  the  bread  problem. 

This  fall  the  necessity  for  a larger  wheat  production  made 
it  imperative  that  we  not  only  increase  the  acreage  of  winter 
wheat,  but  that  only  the  very  highest  grade  and  most  produc- 
tive seed  be  used.  In  taking  stock  of  the  supply  of  pedigree 
wheat  available  for  seed  purposes,  about  4,000  bushels  were 
located,  distributed  amang  fewer  than  60  growers.  In  order 
to  multiply  this  purebred  wheat  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
the  Wisconsin  Bankers’  association  offered  to  distribute  it 
through  their  local  bankers,  who  used  t'heir  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  the  farmer  patrons  to  insure  that  the  seed  got  into 
the  hands  of  careful  farmers  who  would  keep  it  pure  and  agree 
to  save  next  year’s  crop  for  seed  purposes. 

This  movement  resulted  in  getting  into  the  ground  the  en- 
tire available  supply  of  pedigree  wheat.  Tt  will  be  grown  for 
distribution  to  farmers  as  seed  for  next  year’s  crop. 

‘ 1 THE  PURE  SEED  AND*  HOME  POWER  SPECIAL  ’ ’ 

The  “Special,”  run  jointly  by  the  “Soo  Line,”  the  C.,  M.  & 
St.  P.  R.  R.  the  Wisconsin  Bankers’  association,  and  the  Wis- 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


consin  College  of  Agriculture,  was  the  agency  used  by  these  in- 
stitutions to  bring  home  to  the  people  of  the  state  two  timely 
and  important  messages. 

The  Pure  Seed  Car  contained  a display  of  the  finest  Wiscon- 
sin grown  seed  grains,  reinforced  by  legends  and  explanations 
emphasizing  the  advantages  of  planting  only  purebred  and 
high-testing  seeds  on  our  farms.  Special  emphasis  was  laid  on 
the  emergency  crops  such  as  beans,  and  the  sandy  land  crops 
which  can  bring  into  productivity  many  acres  of  uncultivated 
land.  Our  hope  for  these  crops  is  that  in  this  time  of  world- 
wide food  shortage  they  will  be  the  means  of  augmenting  our 
productive  capacity  to  a greater  extent  than  increased  yield 
alone  on  already  productive  land  can  accomplish. 

The  Home  Power  and  Home  Convenience  car  demonstrated 
that  the  dream  of  the  farmer’s  wife  of  yesterday  is  the  reality 
of  today.  No  longer  need  the  duties  of  homekeeping  on  the 
farm  be  turned  into  drudgery  and  discomfort  by  the  carrying 
of  tons  of  water,  by  the  back-breaking  tasks  over  wash  board 
and  churn,  and  the  lack  of  facilities  for  lighting,  bathing,  and 
sewage  disposal.  The  gasoline  engine,  the  power  churn,  the 
washing  machine,  the  separator,  the  home  light  plant,  simple 
yet  effective  systems  for  hot  and  cold  running  water  in  the 
house,  and  the  septic  tank  system  for  sewage  disposal,  are  all 
within  reach  of  the  individual  farm  home.  This  was  demon- 
strated by  lectures  and  observation  of  the  running  machinery 
and  models  in  the  Home  Convenience  Car.  Twenty-seven 
stops  in  16  counties  were  made  and  lectures  and  demonstra-  i 
tions  given  which  were  visited  by  7,000  persons,  enthusiastic  in 
their  appreciation  of  the  gospel  of  better  farming  and  better 
homes. 

Dairy  Demonstrations  Control  Factory  Losses 

The  work  of  the  dairy  department  in  the  control  of  fac- 
tory losses  has  been  continued  by  G.  H.  Benkendorf.  Through 
local  conferences  with  creamery  and  cheese  factory  managers 
and  patrons,  new  accounting  systems  have  been  introduced  for 
the  purpose  of  checking  losses,  fuel  wastes  have  been  elimin-  | 
ated,  and  septic  tanks  and  sewage  disposal  systems  have  been  I 
intalled. 


Serving  Wisconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time 


0 1 

01 

In  one  instance  (the  Foley  cheese  factory  at  South  Wayne) 
an  annual  loss  of  over  $4,000  was  detected  and  prevented. 
Much  difficulty  was  experienced  from  gassy  fermentation  in 
cheese  which  was  traced  by  J.  L.  Sammis  to  the  whey  tank  from 
which  it  was  transferred  to  the  farmers’  milk  cans,  thus  con- 
taminating the  whole  milk  used  in  cheese  manufacture.  After 
the  installation,  at  a small  cost,  of  an  apparatus  for  pasteuriz- 
ing the  whey,  this  trouble  entirely  disappeared. 


FIG.  17.— REDUCE  FACTORY  LOSSES 

Gassy  fermentation  causes  large  losses  in  the  cheese  business.  By  proper  treatment 
perfect  cheese  like  those  on  the  shelves  will  always  be  made. 


Farmers  Interested  in  Keeping  Accounts 

Never  before  have  farmers  shown  such  active  interest  in  the 
cost  of  production  of  food  products  as  has  been  evidenced 
this  year.  In  an  effort  to  get  at  the  factors  in  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction they  have  taken  keen  interest  in  the  keeping  of  farm 
accounts,  the  work  being  under  the  general  direction  of  D.  H. 
Otis  (agricultural  economics). 

An  illustration  of  this  interest  is  shown  in  the  growth  of  the 
North  Lake  farm  management  club  whose  activities  are  being 
copied  by  other  clubs  organized  on  the  same  plan  in  other  sec- 
tions of  the  state. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  294 


Each  farmer  paid  a membership  fee  of  $2  to  cover  necessary 
local  expenses  in  conducting  the  work  and  90  per  cent  of  the 
farmers  enrolled  kept  a complete  set  of  accounts  throughout 


FIG.  18.— FARMERS'  WHO  KEEP  BOOKS 
A group  of  the  members  of  a farmers’  club  at  North  Lake,  Wisconsin 


the  year.  By  following  this  plan  in  other  localities,  between 
400  and  500  farmers  have  been  encouraged  in  keeping  financial 
records  during  the  past  year. 


Published  and  distributed  under  Act  of  Congress,  May  8,  1914,  by  the  Agricultural 
Extension  Service  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  K.  L. 
Hatch,  Assistant  Director,  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  cooperating. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


August,  1918 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


Agricultural  Engineering  Department 


FROM  VIRGIN  FOREST  TO  FERTILE  FIELD 
Modern  methods  and  improved  machinery  make  the  clearing  of  land  much  easier. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


Brush,  logs,  and  stumps  keep  10,000,000  acres  of  upper  Wisconsin 
from  cultivation.  Reclaimed  from  the  jungle  of  rubbish  on  the  sur- 
face, the  soil  will  feed  millions  of  people.  Wheat  is  a staple  crop. 
Stock  raising  is  profitable  and  helps  to  clear  the  land.  Pag^s  3-4. 

The  jungle  gets  thicker  with  each  year  unless  stopped  by  burning, 
cutting,  or  pasturing.  Grass  seeding  is  a factor.  Brushing  kills  the 
hardwood  stumps  and  they  decay  in  a few  years.  Plowing  between 
the  remaining  stumps  may  be  a good  practice  for  the  settler  getting 
a foothold,  but  the  reclamation  is  not  complete  until  the  last  pine 
stump  is  removed.  Page  5. 

Explosives  and  stump  pulling  machines  get  the  stumps  out  of  the 
ground.  Many  communities  have  peculiar  devices  of  their  own.  Of 
the  standard  types,  capstan  stump  pullers  are  probably  more  com- 
mon, although  many  of  the  upright  or  tripod  pullers  are  in  use.  For 
both  of  these,  horses  supply  the  power.  Horses  on  a block  and  line, 
man  power  machines,  and  a few  large  machines  with  drums  driven 
by  an  engine  are  also  used.  The  hooks  and  chokei’S  for  gripping  a 
stump  or  root  form  an  important  part  of  the  equipment.  Both  men 
and  teams  get  more  efficient  with  experience.  Pages  6—17. 

Piling  machines  save  man  power  in  getting  rid  of  the  stumps. 
Large  stumps  pulled  whole  have  to  be  split  with  dynamite  and  old 
logs  have  to  be  sawed  to  make  piling  and  burning  easier.  Cleaning 
the  earth  from  the  roots  is  sometimes  a difficult  task  in  clay  soils. 
The  earth  belongs  back  in  the  stump  hole.  Cradle  knolls,  leveled, 
make  breaking  easier  and  drainage  better.  Pages  18-19. 

Figures  on  cost  of  stumping  show  that  the  stump  and  not  the  acre 
is  the  unit  of  measure.  The  cost  varies  with  the  kind  and  condition 
of  the  stump,  the  number  of  stumps,  the  type  of  soil,  and  the  skill  of  1 
the  workman.  Pages  20-22.  I 

Studies  and  demonstrations  in  cooperation  with  railroads  and  manu-  U 
facturers  of  stumping  equipment  have  been  made  by  the  College  of  | 
Agriculture.  A special  train  carried  the  equipment  for  demonstra-  | 
tions  in  fifteen  places  in  1917.  Similar  demonstrations  were  made  in  i 
1916.  Pages  22-27.  jj 

Improvements  in  methods  have  resulted  from  the  studies  and  dem-  i 
onstrations.  Lower  grades  of  dynamite,  which  are  cheaper,  have  been 
found  in  certain  cases  to  be  better  than  the  higher  and  more  expen- 
sive grades.  The  Conrath  piler  has  been  operated  where  only  a gin  j 
pole  was  ever  seen  before.  The  piler  itself  has  been  improved  by  the  I 
Frost  trip.  Improvements  in  the  take-ups,  cluster  cables,  and  the  ! 
root  hooks  have  followed.  The  spirit  of  cooperation  fostered  by  the  ! 
demonstrations  has  made  neighbors  cooperate  in  the  purchase  of  ma-  : 
chinery  and  in  the  exchange  of  help  to  lower  the  cost  of  stumping,  i 

Pages  27-28.  l\ 

Studies  are  in  progress  on  methods  of  preparing  lands  for  stump- 
ing: the  proper  grade  and  amount  of  dynamite  to  use,  the  most  eco- 
nomical size  of  crew,  the  comparative  advantage  of  stumping  by  con- 
tract and  by  cooperation  between  neighbors,  the  standardization  of 
methods,  pulling  before  cracking  or  pulling  after  cracking,  and  a re- 
liable basis  for  estimating  the  cost  of  stumping.  Pages  29-32. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 

Agricultural  Engineering  Department* 

Stump  removal  has  been  a problem  in  practically  all  parts 
of  Wisconsin.  The  stumps  in  southern  Wisconsin  were  re- 
moved in  pioneer  days  by  back  breaking  labor.  The  work  was 
done  largely  by  hand.  Today  the  problem  of  land  clearing 
is  limited  largely  to  upper  Wisconsin.  Modern  methods  and 
machinery  make  the  work  easier. 

The  Cut-Over  Lands 

About  10,000,000  acres  of  cut-over  lands  in  upper  Wiscon- 
sin are  in  the  twilight  between  the  lumberman’s  paradise  and 
the  farmer’s  estate.  Beneath  the  jungle  of  fallen  logs,  stumps, 
and  tree  tops,  is  a soil  that  bids  fair  to  do  more  for  humanity 
by  raising  wheat  for  food  than  it  did  raising  logs  for  lumber. 

Start  the  clearing  where  clearing  is  easiest.  Irregular 
fields  are  pardonable  if  they  follow  the  lines  of  easy  clearing 
and  good  land.  In  pioneer  days  it  is  cleared  acres  that  count. 
The  sides  of  the  fields  should  be  straightened  later,  but  not  at 
the  expense  of  productive  area. 

Brushing  and  stumping  are  the  two  steps  in  land  clearing. 
Brushing  consists  of  cutting  the  brush  and  straggling  trees 
and  piling  them  for  burning.  Complete  brushing  includes 
also  the  piling  and  burning  of  the  down  logs  small  enough  to 
be  piled  by  hand.  Stumping  gets  the  stumps  out  of  the 
ground  and  out  of  the  way.  It  includes  the  piling  and  burn- 
ing of  the  remaining  down  logs,  too  large  for  hand  piling. 

Cutting  the  sprouts  in  August  after  brushing  kills  the  roots 
and  makes  the  brushing  permanent.  Grass  seeding  makes  the 
brushed  land  profitable.  Pasturing  or  haying  between  the 
stumps  paves  the  way  for  dairying.  In  the  meantime,  the 


* Compiled  by  F.  M.  White  and  E.  R.  Jones  from  notes  by  Carl  Livingston,  L.  F. 
Livingston,  Alfred  Mathewson  and  Joseph  Hussey. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295. 


FIG.  1.— BRUSH  PILED  IN  WINDROWS 

This  light  poplar  brush  has  been  piled  in  windrows.  It  is  sometimes  better  practice 
to  pile  the  brush  in  larger  piles.  In  brushing,  the  wood  which  may  be  saved  (see  lower 
right-hand  illustration)  helps  pay  the  cost. 


FIG.  2.— HOW  LIVESTOCK  HELPS  THE  SETTLER 

Before  the  land  on  the  left  of  the  fence  was  pastured,  the  brush  was  as  thick  as  that 

on  the  right. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


5 


condition  of  the  land  improves.  The  fibrous  roots  of  the 
stumps  decay.  This  adds  humus  to  soil  and  makes  the  re- 
moval of  the  stumps  easier  after  three  or  four  years. 

Plowing  between  the  stumps  for  cultivated  crops  is  some- 
times all  right,  but  the  practice  is  wasteful  in  the  long  run. 
The  stumps  interfere  with  t'he  cultivated  crops  more  than 
they  do  with  grass.  A big  pine  stump  may  prevent  plowing 
and  cropping  two  square  rods  of  land.  Hardwood  stumps 


FIG.  3.— HAY  BETWEEN  THE  STUMPS 

Hay  is  a profitable  crop  to  grow  between  the  stumps.  A steady  team  can  mow  this 

with  a mower. 


make  up  in  number  what  they  lack  in  size.  It  is  easier  to 
harvest  a whole  crop  of  grain  on  a clean  acre  than  two-thirds 
of  a crop  on  a stumpy  acre. 

It  is  more  pardonable  to  dodge  the  hardwood  stumps  than 
the  pine  in  a cultivated  field.  Each  year  after  brushing  makes 
t'he  removal  of  the  hardwood  stumps  decidedly  easier.  The 
effect  of  time  on  the  pine  stumps  is  not  so  noticeable. 


Methods  of  Stumping 

The  stump  puller  and  dynamite  working  hand  in  hand  offer 
the  solution  of  the  stump  problem.  It  is  seldom  advisable  to 
use  either  alone.  A proper  combination  of  the  two  methods 
is  more  economical. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


FIG.  4.— THE  STUMP  THAT  STOPPED  THE  PLOW 

A pine  stump  may  waste  two  square  rods  of  a field.  Dodging  a stump  is  poor 

practice. 


FIG.  5—  READY  FOR  THE  HARVESTER 
Stumps  are  a nuisance  in  a field  like  this.  Every  stump  wastes  wheat. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


7 


Dynamite  in  Stump  Removal 

Investigational  work  has  made  it  possible  to  separate  the 
uses  of  dynamite  for  stump  removal.  Under  general  condi- 
tions the  amount  of  dynamite  required  in  each  method  de- 
creases in  t'he  order  in  which  they  are  listed : 


To  Blast mg 
Ha  cm  he 


Upper  left:  cap  and  fuse  method  of  loading  under  a solid,  firm,  evenly  rooted  stump. 
Upper  right:  top-rotted  or  hollow  stump  with  roots  rotted  away  on  one  side.  Lower: 
separated  roots  of  a top-rotted  stump.  Dotted  lines  show  the  direction  of  the  explosive 
force.  Electric  cap  could  be  used  in  each  case. 


1.  Blowing  out  the  stump  completely. 

2.  Cracking  t'he  stump  to  pull  it  with  a team  on  a straight 

line.  I 

3.  Cracking  the  stump  to  pull  it  with  a “block  and  line.” 

4.  Cracking  the  stump  to  pull  it  with  a stump  puller. 

5.  Cracking  the  stump  after  it  is  pulled  with  a stump 
puller. 

Regardless  of  purpose,  success  depends  on  the  proper  hand- 
ling and  use  of  the  explosives. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


To  blow  out  a stump  completely,  the  stump,  the  soil,  the  tools, 
and  the  explosives  must  be  considered.  It  is  first  necessary 
to  know  the  stump — its  kind,  age,  and  condition;  the  soil — ■ 
its  character  and  moisture  content;  the  best  tools  and  their 
use;  and  the  lowest  priced  dynamite  that  will  do  effective 
work. 


Earth  Auger 
and  Ring 
Extension 


Driving 

Iron 

Hammer 


Tamping 

Stick 


FIG.  7— BLASTING  TOOLS  SIMPLE  AND  SAFE 

These  tools  are  simple  but  effective.  The  electric  method  of  detonation  has  many 
advantages  over  the  cap  and  fuse  method.  The  downward  stroke  of  the  plunger  gen- 
erates a current  of  electricity  that  explodes  the  electric  cap. 


The  most  economical  results  in  stump  blasting  are  obtained 
with  a.  firm,  dead,  lateral  rooted  stump  in  moist  clay,  with  all 
the  fibrous  and  smaller  roots  decayed.  A charge  of  20  per 
cent  dynamite,  properly  placed  and  thoroughly  tamped  under 
such  a stump,  will  throw  it  out  in  pieces  which  can  be  handled 
easily  and  burned.  As  the  character  of  the  stump  and  soil 
change,  methods  and  tools  vary. 

Methods  of  Loading  and  Firing.  A charge  of  dynamite 
placed  under  a stump  to  blow  it  completely  out  of  the  ground 


Getting  Rid  op  the  Stumps 


9 


should  be  located  where  the  stump  is  tightest.  This  location 
is  not  necessarily  under  the  center  of  the  stump. 

A single  charge  properly  placed  so  that  the  force  of  the  ex- 
plosion will  be  applied  where  the  stump  is  tightest  is  to  be 
recommended  for  stumps  not  too  large,  and  without  widely 
spread  lateral  roots,  or  when  the  smaller  top-rotted  stumps 

have  their  lateral  roots  joined 
at  the  crown.  The  firing  can 
be  done  with  an  ordinary  No. 
6 cap  or  a No.  6 electric  cap. 

The  electric  method  of  fir- 
ing is  recommended  generally 
because  it  is  quicker  and 
safer.  It  is  especially  rec- 
ommended for  large  stumps 
or  blind  stumps  (top-rotted) 
because  it  permits  firing  at 
the  same  time  the  several 
charges  distributed  around 
the  stump. 

Tools.  A 4-foot  driving 
iron  made  of  l1/*?  inch  octag- 
onal (eight-sided)  tool  steel 
and  an  8-  or  10-pound  double- 
faced  hammer  are  the  best 


PIG.  8.— GOODBYE  TO  AN  OLD  SETTLER 

Cracked  into  four  pieces  by  two  pounds  of 
dynamite  placed  exactly  right.  It  is  all 
ready  for  the  puller. 


all  around  tools  for  making 
holes  under  stumps.  They 
save  time  and  will  make  a 
hole  in  practically  all  soils. 
The  iron  is  easily  pulled  out  of  the  ground  by  battering  it  on 
the  sides  a few  times.  If  it  should  stick,  a pole  or  a bar  slipped 
through  a short  piece  of  chain  half  hitched  around  the  iron  will 
easily  pry  it  out. 

For  holes  deeper  than  four  feet  the  earth  auger  is  best. 

Proper  loading  of  dynamite  in  bore  holes  is  of  vast  import- 
ance. The  paper  cartridges  should  be  slit  with  a sharp  knife 
from  end  to  end  three  or  four  times,  then  dropped  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hole  and  crushed  by  firmly  pressing  with  a wooden 
tamping  stick.  The  cartridge  containing  the  cap  should  not 
be  slit  at  the  primed  end. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


FIG.  9.— LOOSENING  THE  DRIVING  IRON 

A few  taps  with  a hammer  make  the  hole  larger  and  let  the  driving  iron  come  out 
easily.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  use  a chain  and  bar  to  pull  the  iron  (shown  at  the 
right). 

Tamping  or  confining  the  loaded  charge  is  the  biggest 
single  factor  in  the  success  of  stump  blasting.  Improper  and 
careless  tamping  wastes  dynamite,  time,  and  money.  Damp 
clay  is  the  best  material  for  tamping,  but  any  soil  used  should 
be  firmly  tamped  and  made  as  firm  as  the  surrounding  soil. 
All  pressure  from  the  explosion  escaping  through  an  improp- 
erly tamped  bore  hole  is  wasted.  About  four  inches  of  earth 
should  be  firmly  pressed  on  top  of  the  charge.  Crumbled 
soil  (not  lumps)  should  then  be  rammed  tightly  with  a 
wooden  tamping  stick  all  the  way  to  t'he  top  of  the  hole. 


FIG.  10.— SPLITTING  WITH  DYNAMITE  AFTER  PULLING 


At  the  left  is  shown  the  placing  of  the  charge  in  the  butt  of  the  stump— at  the  right, 
in  a crotch  at  the  side.  Plenty  of  mud  can  be  used  for  a cap.  Electric  blasting  cap 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  cap  and  fuse. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


11 


The  amount  of  dynamite  required  depends  on  several  fac- 
tors: the  size,  age,  kind  and  condition  of  the  stump,  and  the 
character  and  moisture  of  the  soil.  Table  1 shows  the  amounts 
of  dynamite  ased  to  blow  out  completely  white  pine  stumps 
under  the  conditions  given. 


Table  I. — Use  the  Right  Amount  of  Dynamite:  the  Amounts 
Given  in  This  Table  Did  Good  Work. 


At  Haugen 

At  Washburn 

At  Holcombe 

40  years  old 

20  per  cent  dynamite 

Silt  Loam  Soil 

30  years  old 

20  per  cent  dynamite 

Superior  Red  Clay 

27  years  old 

40  per  cent  dynamite 

Sandy  Loam 

Diameter 

inches 

Load 

pounds 

Diameter 

inches 

Load 

pounds 

Diameter 

inches 

Load 

pounds 

15 

1 

10 

i 

13 

11 

24 

4 

14 

1 

14 

14 

24 

4 

14 

i 

15 

2 

26 

5 

16 

15 

24 

26 

34 

16 

i 

15 

14 

27 

4 

16 

14 

18 

2 

28 

41 

18 

1 

20 

3 

28 

24 

20 

1 

20 

4 

30 

24 

20 

11 

21 

4 

30 

2 

22 

2 

21 

44 

34 

4 

22 

14 

24 

44 

34 

44 

26 

14 

24 

5 

36 

5 

28 

2 

24 

5 

40 

7 

28 

If 

27 

51 

40 

61 

30 

14 

44 

44 

30 

2 

45 

64 

30 

1 

45 

3 

30 

24 

30 

4 

33 

3 

Cracking  before  or  after  pulling.  To  crack  for  a team  pull, 
dynamite  should  be  loaded  in  exactly  the  same  manner  it 
would  be  if  intended  to  blow  out  t'he  stump  completely,  and 
the  charge  should  be  reduced  from  three-quarters  to  two- 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


thirds.  To  crack  for  a “block  and  line”  the  loading  is  done 
in  the  same  way  and  the  charge  reduced  about  one-half.  To 
crack  before  pulling  with  a stump  puller,  the  loading  is  done 
in  the  same  way  and  the  charge  reduced  to  approximately  one- 
third  to  one-quarter  as  muc'h  as  for  complete  removal;  to 
crack  after  pulling,  the  charge  should  be  reduced  to  about 
one-fifth  to  one-sixth  as  much  and  should  be  loaded  in  either  a 
natural  crotch  between  the  roots  at  the  side  of  the  stump  or 
in  the  butt  close  to  the  crown.  It  is  not  necessary  to  bore  in 
the  wood.  The  dynamite  should  be  placed  close  against  the 
wood  and  thoroughly  covered  with  plenty  of  mud. 

Grades  of  dynamite.  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  use  a dyna- 
mite quicker  than  a 20  per  cent  grade.  Except  in  loose  sandy 
soil,  20  per  cent  dynamite  will  give  exactly  the  same  results 
as  40  per  cent  and  60  per  cent,  using  pound  for  pound. 

Stump  Pullers 

Capstan  pullers.  Most  of  the  'horse  power  stump  pullers  on 
the  market  make  use  of  a vertical  drum.  A sweep  from  12 
to  22  feet  long  forms  the  capstan  bar.  One  end  of  a wire 


The  hitch  is  low  on  the  anchor  and  high  on  the  stump  to  be  pulled,  to  prevent  the 
anchor  from  starting  first.  At  least  150  feet  of  pull  line  is  needed  and  the  take-up  is 
put  on  wherever  it  is  needed. 


cable  winds  on  the  drum  and  the  other  end  is  attached  to  the 
stump.  It  is  called  the  pull  line.  Ordinarily  the  power  of 
the  team  is  multiplied  by  25  or  30,  but  by  t'he  use  of  power 
pulleys  the  pulling  power  is  multiplied  indefinitely. 

The  smaller  the  drum  the  greater  the  power  with  the  same 
length  of  sweep,  but  the  harder  it  is  on  the  cable  because  of 
the  sharpness  of  the  bend.  A drum  is  full  when  it  has  a 
single  layer  wound  on  it  from  bottom  to  top.  This  is  usually 
from  10  to  15  rounds  or  from  30  to  60  feet  of  cable.  To  wind 
more  than  one  layer  on  the  drum  cuts  the  cable. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


13 


The  power  pulley  multiplies  the  power  of  the  capstan  puller  by  two. 

To  pull  stumps  near  the  puller  with  a pull  line  150  feet  long 
and  a drum  that  holds  only  50  feet,  a take-up  attached  to  the 
line  at  the  desired  point  gives  the  desired  length  of  line.  A 
150-foot  pull  line  is  an  advantage  because  a bigger  area  can’ 
be  stumped  for  a single  anchor.  An  extension  of  75  feet  on  a 
150-foot  line  is  common.  The  anchor  cable  is  sometimes  ex- 
tended to  increase  the  radius  of  the  machine  or  to  get  a bet- 
ter place  for  it  to  work.  A solid  stump  must  be  used  for  an 
anchor  because  it  must  be  stronger  than  the  stump  to  be 
pulled. 


The  cable  is  placed  so  that  there  is  no  bend  at  the  choker  hook.  The  take-up  may 
be  put  anywhere  on  the  pull  line.  It)  is  well  to  have  150  feet  of  cable  and  to  take  up 
slack  with  this  take-up.  This  is  a cam  take-up.  Some  other  types  are  equally  satis- 
factory. 

The  cable  is  attached  to  the  stump  with  a solid  top  by 
means  of  a choker.  A cluster  of  three  cables  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  the  men  to  put  a choker  on  a second  or  a third  stump 
while  the  first  one  is  being  pulled.  Where  the  stumps  are 
small  the  three  stumps  may  be  pulled  at  the  same  time. 
Stumps  with  decayed  tops  can  be  gripped  only  by  a root  hook. 

The  smallest  crew  to  use  with  a stump  puller  is  three  men, 
one  to  drive  t'he  team  and  two  men  to  handle  the  chokers  or 
the  hook.  Two  extra  men,  one  to  help  the  driver  operate 
the  machine  and  the  other  to  handle  one  of  the  chokers  or  to 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


prepare  stumps  for  the  hook,  make  progress  somewhat  faster, 
but  the  practice  is  questionable. 

Good  stump  pullers  are  so  made  (1)  that  they  are  light  and 
strong,  and  easily  movable  from  place  to  place;  (2)  that  they 
lock  automatically  against  the  back  lash  of  the  sweep  in  case 
something  breaks;  and  (3)  that  they  have  a drum  release  to 
relieve  the  horses  of  pulling  while  crossing  the  cable.  It  is 
convenient  but  not  necessary  to  have  the  machine  equipped 
with  a truck. 


FIG.  14— cluster  cables  speed  stumping 

This  cluster  of  three  chokers  is  fastened  on  the  pull  line.  Two  or  three  small  stumps 
may  be  pulled  at  once. 


Here  is  the  equipment  needed  for  a capstan  stump  puller : 

150  feet  of  7/8"  cable 
75  feet  of  %"  cable  for  extension 
32  feet  of  anchor  cable 

22  feet  of  cable  for  extending  anchor 

2 power  pulleys 

3 automatic  take-ups  (with  choker  on  each) 

1 root  hook 

1 cluster  of  three  chokers 

The  individual  farmer  buying  a stump  puller  for  use  on  his 
own  farm  might  omit  the  extension  cables,  one  power  pulley, 
one  take-up  and  the  cluster  cables.  For  the  more  powerful 
machines  the  diameter  of  the  cable  increases. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


15 


FIG.  15.— A ROOT  HOOK  FOR  PULLING  ROTTEN  TOPPED  STUMPS 

A root  hook  weighs  from  50  to  150  pounds.  When  the  choker  breaks  off  the  top  of 
stump,  or  when  the  stump  is  top-rotted,  this  hook  is  used  on  the  roots. 


FIG.  16.— A VERTICAL  LIFT  STUMP  PULLER 
Where  stumps  are  large  and  scattered  the  tripod  puller  is  an  efficient  machine. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


Tripod  puller.  The  tripod  puller  has  been  very  popular  in 
many  cases,  particularly  where  the  'roots  are  shallow  and 
spread  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  has  plenty  of  power 
and  does  not  require  much  cable,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of 
requiring  moving  for  every  stump.  T'he  machine  costs  from 
$175  to  $250. 


FIG.  17.— ONE-MAN  STUMP  PULLER 
A machine  for  multiplying  the  pulling  power  of  a man. 


One-man  puller.  The  one-man  stump  puller  develops  a great 
pulling  force  at  the  sacrifice  of  speed.  The  machine  is  easily 
transported  from  place  to  place  and  can  be  used  conveniently 
in  marshy  places  where  a team  could  not  operate.  It  costs 
from  $50  to  $200. 


A convenient  method  of  doubling  the  strength  of  a team.  For  greatest  efficiency  the 
team  should  pull  toward  the  anchor  instead  of  at  an  angle. 

The  block  and  line.  A simple  pulley  attached  to  the  stump 
or  snag  to  be  pulled  gives  a team  on  a chain  double  power 
where  the  other  end  of  the  chain  is  anchored  to  another  stump 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


17 


or  snag.  A %-ineh  chain  is  commonly  used.  Tliis  seems  to 
be  the  simplest  power  team-hitch  on  a stump  too  strong  for  a 
straight  pull.  It  is  commonly  called  the  “ block  and  line” 
method  but  should  not  be  confused  with  the  more  complicated 
block  and  tackle  which  is  too  intricate  for  general  practice. 
The  accompanying  diagram  shows  how,  by  adding  another 
pulley,  the  power  of  the  team  can  be  multiplied  by  four. 


The  engine  and  drum.  Drums  run  by  an  engine  have  not 
yet  been  perfected  for  stump  pulling.  There  are  machines  on 
the  market  which  may  prove  satisfactory  with  improvements. 
Generally  these  machines  are  not  geared  low  enough  to  give  a 
pull  of  sufficient  strength  to  be  of  practical  value.  For  effi- 
cient work,  any  power  machine  should  have  a haul-back  line 
to  haul  back  the  main  line  after  the  stump  has  been  pulled. 

Piling  and  Burning 

It  is  possible  to  pull  large  pine  stumps  whole  but  in  clay 
soils  a great  deal  of  earth  clings  to  the  roots.  This  leaves  a 
large  hole.  The  earth  must  be  removed  from  the  roots  either 
by  hand  or  blasting  after  pulling.  Stumps  shattered  by  dyna- 
mite before  pulling  are  pulled  in  separate  pieces  and  less  earth 
sticks  to  the  roots  than  when  pulled  whole.  Furthermore,  the 
stumps  split  in  pieces  are  ready  for  piling  and  burning. 

The  stumps  may  be  used  for  fuel  but  they  are  usually  piled 
and  burned  on  the  ground.  In  either  case  the  earth  must  be 
removed  from  the  roots.  It  belongs  back  in  the  stump  hole. 

The  high  narrow  pile  burns  better  than  one  more  spread  out. 
The  gin  pole  with  a team,  line  aiid  pulley  is  a simple,  helpful 
device.  Even  with  careful  piling  the  stumps  must  be  repiled 
to  burn  completely.  Logs  and  stumps  burn  best  when  piled 
separately. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


FIG.  20.— THE  CONRATH  PILER-AN  UPPER  WISCONSIN  STANDBY 

A homemade  piler.  The  irons  can  be  made  by  a blacksmith  and  cable  purchased  for 
about  $60.  It  will  pile  either  stumps  or  logs. 


FIG.  21.— HOW  TO  PILE  LOGS  FOR  BURNING 

Lay  the  logs  parallel.  Make  the  pile  high  by  means  of  a piler.  Pile  logs  and  stumps 
separately.  Each  keeps  the  other  from  forming  a compact  pile. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


19 


Movable  pilers  of  various  types  are  in  use.  Of  these  the  Con- 
rath  piler  has  probably  met  with  the  most  approval.  Blue 
prints  of  this  homemade  machine  (Fig.  20)  can  be  secured  from 
the  College  of  Agriculture.  The  iron  parts  can  be  purchased 
from  stump  puller  manufacturers  or  made  by  blacksmiths  for 
about  $60.  This  includes  150  feet  of  half-inch  and  100  feet  of 
% inch  cable.  The  farmer  himself  can  cut  the  timbers  for  the 
piler.  The  swinging  boom  is  about  30  feet  long  with  a sheave 
at  the  end  of  it.  From  this  sheave  is  suspended  a single  block 
to  give  a team  double  power  in  lifting  the  stump  to  the  end  of 
the  boom.  The  pull  of  the  horses  then  swings  the  boom  until 
the  stump  is  over  the  pile  when  it  is  dropped.  A team  or  one 
good  horse  can  usually  lift  the  stumps  as  fast  as  two  teams  can 
drag  them  to  the  piler.  Small  pieces  of  stumps  may  be  hauled 
on  a stone  boat  and  thrown  on  the  pile  by  hand.  For  the  smaller 
hardwood  stumps  a piler  is  less  essential  than  for  the  larger 
pine  stumps. 

Dropping  stumps  on  the  burning  pile  keeps  it  stirred  up  and 
aids  the  burning.  For  this  practice  a particularly  long  boom 
is  necessary.  Even  then,  it  is  too  hot  for  men  to  work  with  com- 
fort near  the  burning  pile  and  a sudden  change  in  the  direction 
of  the  wind  places  the  piler  in  danger  of  burning. 

The  trip  for  dropping  the  stump  at  the  right  time  is  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  piler.  Such  a trip  is  shown  in  Figure  22. 
It  can  be  made  by  a blacksmith  or  a similar  one  can  be  purchased 
from  a stump  puller  company  for  about  $5.  A hook  has  been 
provided  at  the  end  of  the  cable  to  drop  the  stump  by  releasing 
the  horses  when  the  trip  refuses  to  work. 

The  Conrath  piler  and  the  Frost  trip,  taking  their  names 
from  the  farmers  near  Ladysmith  who  designed  and  made  them 
for  their  own  use,  are  good  examples  of  the  devices  that  have 
been  worked  out  by  farmers  themselves  and  popularized  by  the 
College  of  Agriculture  and  other  organizations  for  the  improve- 
ment of  land  clearing  methods.  When  Frank  and  Charles  Con- 
rath  got  tired  of  piling  by  hand  and  later  tired  of  the  gin  pole 
they  built  their  first  piler  with  a swinging  boom.  Mr.  Frost,  a 
neighbor,  perfected  the  piler  with  his  trip.  Neither  of  these  de- 
vices has  been  patented. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


The  Frost  trip  is  composed  of  six  parts.  B is  the  body  of  the  trip  and  parts  D,  E 
and  O are  held  into  place  by  three  bolts  respectively.  D is  the  lip  which  engages  the 
trip  arm  C and  is  held  fast  by  the  spring  E.  A is  a swivel  eye  by  which  the  trip  is  sus- 
pended from  the  boom.  E is  a 5/16"  chain  9'  5"  long  with  a large  ring  placed  10"  from 
the  trip.  The  operation  of  the  trip  is  as  follows:  That  part  of  the  chain  which  extends 
beyond  the  large  ring  (or  a circular  hook  with  a narrow  opening)  is  placed  around  the 
stump,  drawn  tightly,  the  end  brought  through  the  large  ring  and  hooked  up  snugly 
into  the  lip,  D.  The  18"  of  chain  between  the  ring  and  the  trip  is  called  the  tag  chain. 
Its  purpose  is  merely  to  keep  the  choker  chain  attached  to  the  trip  where  the  choker 
chain  is  not  engaged  in  the  lip.  Now  as  the  stump  is  hoisted  over  the  pile  a sharp  pull 
on  the  rope  attached  to  the  end  of  the  trip  arm  C disengages  the  lip  D which  in  turn 
releases  the  end  of  the  chain  and  the  stump  falls  on  the  pile.  A 30'  trip  rope  is  attached 
to  the  arm  C so  that  a release  may  be  made  at  any  time.  A blue  print  of  the  Frost  trip 
may  be  secured  by  writing  to  the  College  of  Agriculture. 

It  was  during  the  experimental  work  of  1918  that  Warren  Moore,  foreman  of  the 
experimental  crew,  designed  the  circular  hook  with  a narrow  opening  to  replace  the 
ring  on  the  tag  chain.  He  also  made  minor  improvements  in  the  trip. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps  * 


21 


Cost  of  Land  Clearing 

t 

Brushing  and  stumping  are  two  separate  items  of  cost.  Both 
of  these  are  affected  by  labor  conditions.  Both  may  be  done 
by  the  farmer  himself,  or  by  a contractor.  The  contractor 
usually  has  better  equipment  and  a trained  crew.  To  com* 
pensate  for  this  the  farmer  can  use  spare  help  at  odd  times. 
The  farmer  who  has  to  be  home  morning  and  evenings  to  milk 


FIG.  23— PASTURING  BEFORE  BRUSHING 
Sheep  killed  the  small  brush  in  one  summer. 

his  cows  must  have  something  to  do  between  milkings.  In 
some  cases  it  can  be  proved  that  these  10  hours  do  not  actually 
cost  the  farmer  more  than  10  cents  an  hour. 

Cooperation  between  neighbors  enables  each  to  profit  by  the 
other’s  spare  time,  as  well  as  his  own.  Where  neighbors  buy 
equipment  together  and  exchange  help,  the  cost  of  land  clear- 
ing is  reduced  to  a minimum. 

Brushing.  Brushing  costs  the  settler  from  nothing  to  about 
$30  an  acre.  It  costs  nothing  where  a villager  is  glad  to  chop 
and  burn  the  brush  and  tops  for  the  wood  that  he  can  save 
for  fuel.  In  some  cases  the  wood  more  than  pays  for  the 
brushing.  In  the  path  of  a forest  fire  or  after  pasturing  like 
that  shown  in  Figure  23,  two  men  can  cut  and  pile  an  acre  in 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


from  two  to  four  days,  using  a team  on  the  down  logs.  The  cost 
of  removing  the  logs  depends  largely  on  the  number  of  pieces  to 
the  acre  large  enough  to  require  a team.  The  maximum  cost 
is  where  there  are  many  down  logs  and  straggling  trees  with 
brush,  like  that  shown  in  Figure  22.  Where  brush  and  logs 
are  well  piled  (each  separately)  and  have  stood  long  enough  to 
become  dry  the  burning  is  a small  item  of  cost. 

The  hay  and  pasture  obtained  from  the  land  after  brushing 
and  before  it  is  ripe  for  stumping,  pay  for  the  seeding  and 


FIG.  24— HARD  CLEARING 

Straggling  trees,  down  logs,  tree  tops,  and  brush  make  a bad  combination.  The  land 
In  the  foreground  was  stumped  at  a high  cost  because  the  hardwood  stumps  were 
green. 

the  cutting  of  the  sprouts  and  return  a profit.  The  next  ex- 
pense is  that  of  stumping. 

Stumping.  The  stump  is  the  unit  of  cost.  The  cost  of 
stumping  can  be  estimated  intelligently  only  after  the  stumps 
on  a test  acre  have  been  counted  and  examined.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  stump  and  the  nature  of  the  soil  are  factors.  Wide 
spreading,  shallow-rooted  pine  stumps  are  removed  much  more 
easily  than  the  deeper-rooted  stumps.  A top-rotted  hardwood 
stump  with  sprouts  is  frequently  harder  to  remove  than  a green 
stump. 

The  accompanying  photographs  with  the  explanatory  leg- 
ends based  on  Table  2 give  a general  idea  of  the  cost  of  stump- 
ing. The  data  were  obtained  by  the  stumping  crew  of  the 
College  of  Agriculture  during  the  investigations  and  demon- 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


23 


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(a)  Cracked  with  dynamite  before  pulling-  with  a capstan  puller:  (b)  pulled  whole  with  a capstan  puller  and  then  cracked  with  dynamite: 
(c)  cracked  with  dynamite  and  then  pulled  with  a one-man  puller;  (d)  dynamite  used  alone  to  remove  stump  completely:  (e)  no  record;  (f)  included 
under  pulling.  The  records  of  the  work  at  Joel,  Frederic,  and  Laona  are  not  reported  in  this  table  because  they  are  incomplete.  At  Rhinelander 
37  per  cent  of  the  stumps  were  decayed  enough  to  be  pulled  without  a hook  or  choker.  This  accounts  for  low  cost.  * 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


strations  of  1917.  One  man  of  the  crew  was  available  at  all 
times  to  record  the  time  and  cost  of  each  operation. 

The  average  diameter  of  white  pine  stumps  in  Wisconsin  is 
about  22  inches.  This  was  the  average  diameter  of  the  120 
stumps  on  an  acre  of  the  demonstration  plot  at  Phipps.  (See 
Table  2).  The  120  stumps  were  cracked  in  the  ground  with 
47  pounds  of  dynamite.  It  required  52  hours  of  man  labor 
and  17  hours  of  team  labor  to  crack  with  dynamite,  pull  with 
a capstan  puller,  and  pile  with  a Conrath  piler.  Assuming  that 
the  stumping  added  $50  an  acre  to  the  value  of  the  land, 
the  returns  for  the  labor  expended  amounted  to  about  60 
cents  an  hour. 

To  illustrate  the  method  of  using  Table  2 the  cost  per  stump 
for  the  three  methods  used  at  Washburn  is  taken  for  an  example. 

Assuming  wholesale  prices  for  dynamite  and  20  cents  an 
hour  for  the  cost  of  man  labor  and  the  same  for  team  labor,  the 
cost  per  stump  is:  Pulled  whole  with  a capstan  puller  and 

then  cracked  with  dynamite — the  pulling  and  cracking  cost 
26  cents,  and  the  piling  cost  11  cents,  total  37  cents  per  26.4 
inch  stump.  Removed  completely  with  dynamite — the  removal 
cost  42  cents  and  piling  10  cents,  total  52  cents  per  22.5  inch 
stump.  No  record  was  made  for  the  cost  of  piling  the  stumps 
pulled  by  a one-man  puller,  but  the  total  was  about  45  cents  a 
stump. 

These  results  tend  to  show  that  to  pull  with  a horse  puller 
and  then  to  crack  with  dynamite  is  the  best  of  the  three  meth- 
ods tried.  Had  the  method  of  cracking  first  and  then  pulling 
with  a capstan  puller  been  tried,  it  might  have  proved  more 
efficient  than  any  of  the  other  methods.  At  the  demonstrations 
it  was  impossible  to  try  this  method.  One  interesting  fact  is 
that  it  cost  35  cents  a stump  to  crack  with  dynamite  and  pull 
with  a one-man  puller,  while  it  cost  but  26  cents  a stump  to 
pull  whole  with  a horse  capstan  puller  and  to  crack  with  dyna- 
mite, the  stumps  averaging  about  the  same  diameter. 


Land  Clearing  Demonstrations 

In  1914,  Carl  Livingston  began  studying  the  settlers’  meth- 
ods of  clearing  land.  He  collected  information  on  land  clear- 
ing methods  and  carried  it  from  one  community  to  another, 
perfecting  or  improving  methods  and  devices  where  he  could. 
In  1916  a special  train  contributed  by  the  railroads,  with 
equipment  donated  by  manufacturing  companies,  carried  the 
demonstration  outfit  from  place  to  place  in  northern  Wiscon- 
sin. In  1917,  the  work  was  given  a backset  by  the  untimely 
death  of  Mr.  Livingston.  The  demonstrations  did  not  be- 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


25 


gin  until  late  in  the  season  but  were  undertaken  on  a larger 
scale  than  ever  before.  Some  experimental  work  was  done. 

The  “ cooperators.  ” A train  called  the  “Land  Clearing 
Special”  was  operated  in  upper  Wisconsin  during  a period  of 
13  weeks,  making  15  stops  in  14  counties  and  travelling  on  four 
different  railroads.  Part  of  the  information  presented  in  this 
bulletin  was  obtained  on  this  trip.  These  railroads  carried  the 
equipment  free  of  cost:  Chicago,  Milwaukee  & St.  Paul,  Chi- 
cago & North  Western,  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  & 
Omaha,  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  & Sault  Ste  Marie. 


FIG.  25.— HARDWOOD  RIPE  FOR  STUMPING 

On  an  acre  of  this  land  there  were  118  stumps  consisting  of  51  per  cent  hemlock,  30 
per  cent  birch,  6 per  cent  maplel  and  a few  pine,  basswood,  elm,  ash,  and  oak.  See 
Phelps’  data  in  Table  II  for  cost  and  methods  of  stumping. 


E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  Company  furnished  three  expe- 
rienced operators  and  dynamite  for  their  own  demonstrational 
and  investigational  work.  Experiments  were  made  with  20 
per  cent,  30  per  cent,  40  per  cent,  and  50  per  cent  dynamites. 
The  operators  used  No.  6 caps  with  fuse  and  No.  6 electrical 
caps,  as  well  as  punch  bars,  soil  augers,  and  driving  irons  of 
the  latest  design.  Electric  blasting  machines  of  all  sizes  were 
an  important  part  of  the  equipment. 

The  Flynn  Stump  Puller  Company  of  Superior,  Wis.,  used 
its  horse-power  capstan  machine  and  horse-power  piler.  The 
machine  had  a 22-foot  sweep,  200  feet  of  inch  cable,  and  five 
y8-inch  chokers  of  various  lengths.  Only  .five  wraps  of  the 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


FIG.  26.— TYPICAL  PINE  STUMPING 

Upper:  Brushed,  pastured  and  ready  for  stumping.  Center:  After  the  stumps  were 
pulled  and  cracked.  Lower:  Piled  and  ready  for  burning.  See  Washburn  data  in  Table 
II  for  cost  and  methods  of  stumping. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


27 


cable  were  kept  around  the  drum  and  patented  rollers  were 
used  for  keeping  the  line  tight  on  the  drum.  This  machine, 
while  requiring  considerable  room  in  which  to  operate,  was 
very  efficient  in  that  several  stumps  could  be  pulled  at  once 
without  stopping  t'he  machine  while  new  chokers  are  being 
Hooked  to  the  main  line. 

The  piler  had  a swinging  boom  and  mast,  and  used  tongs 
for  taking  hold  of  the  stumps  and  an  automatic  trip  at  the 


FIG.  27.— PILE  OF  GREEN  STUMPS 

Not*  the  fibrous  roots.  It  required  more  work  to  clean  the  earth  from  these  roots 
than  to  pull  out  the  stump.  This  kind  of  stumping  is  expensive  and  robs  the  soil  of 
humus.  Pasturing  for  a few  years  would  have  reduced  the  cost  of  stumping. 

end  of  the  boom.  With  this  machine  stumps  could  be  piled 
and  burned  at  the  same  time.  This  method  resulted  in  the 
more  complete  burning  of  green  or  wet  stumps. 

The  A.  J.  Kirstin  Company  of  Escanaba,  Mich.,  furnished 
two  horse-power  machines  and  a one-man  puller.  The  horse- 
power machines  had  T/g-inch  and  %-inch  main  lines  respect- 
ively, with  extensions  for  extremely  long  pulls.  As  both  ma- 
chines had  power  pulleys  and  take-up  chokers  it  was  possible 
to  pull  stumps  of  any  size.  For  extremely  small  stumps, 
group  chokers  were  used. 

The  one-man  machine  consisted  of  a system  of  levers  and 
clamps  so  arranged  that  seven  different  leverages  could  be 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


exerted  by  one  man  on  the  sweep.  Two  pulleys  were  used  to 
increase  the  power  of  the  machine,  making  it  possible  to  ex-  : 
tract  very  large  stumps. 

The  La  Plant  Choate  Manufacturing  Company  of  Cedar  L 
Rapids,  Iowa,  used  its  Steel  Giant  Horsepower  Machine  of 
the  capstan  type,  using  a %-inch  main  line  with  an  extension,  Ii 
Power  pulleys,  take-up  chokers,  and  cluster  chokers  were  I 
used  wherever  needed.  An  improved  root  hook  was  designed  I 
by  Mr.  Choate  on  this  trip. 


FIG.  28.— THE  LAND  CLEARING  SPECIAL 

This  train  carried  the  gospel  of  better  land  clearing  tools  and  methods  to  upper 

Wisconsin. 


The  Merrill  Iron  Works  of  Merrill,  Wis.,  added  a gasoline 
power  machine  to  the  equipment.  T'he  machine  was  an  ex- 1 
perimental  one  and  proved  very  interesting. 

Results  of  the  Demonstration  Train 

Cooperation  was  the  keynote  of  the  demonstrations  coopeia-j 
tion  between  neighbor  and  neighbor,  farmer  and  merchant. I 
and  farmer  and  banker.  The  dynamite  man  and  the  stumpl 
puller  man  worked  together  in  an  honest  effort  to  work  out  and! 
demonstrate  better  methods  of  stump  removal.  “Get  rid  oi 
the  stumps’’  was  the  slogan. 

The  demonstration  proved  that  neither  dynamite  nor  £ 
stump  puller  alone  is  as  efficient  as  a combination  of  the  twc 
methods.  The  advantage  of  the  right  combination  was  brought 
out  clearly.  The  manufacturer  and  dealer  accepted  the  ver; 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


29 


diet  with  keen  foresight.  Anything  that  tends  to  make  stump 
removal  cheaper  helps  everybody. 

Twenty  per  cent  dynamite  was  found  better  in  clay  than 
40  per  cent.  It  is  also  cheaper.  The  low  grade  dynamite 
lifts  more  and  shatters  less  than  the  higher  grades.  In  sand 
the  quick  action  of  the  40  per  cent  is  necessary. 

The  advantage  of  electric  firing  was  established.  This  makes 
possible  the  distribution  of  the  charge  under  a stump  with  a 
decayed  top  or  spreading  shallow  roots.  Safety  dynamite  de- 


FIG.  29.— A STUMPING  DEMONSTRATION 
As  many  as  3,000  people  came  to  a single  demonstration. 

vices  developed  by  Mr.  Livingston  were  demonstrated.  These 
included  the  dynamite  thawer  and  the  safety  cap  box.  Blue 
prints  of  these  are  sent  upon  application  to  the  College  of 
Agriculture. 

The  value  of  the  accessories  of  the  stump  puller  was  demon- 
strated. A stump  puller  without  take-ups,  power  pulley,  root 
hooks,  and  plenty  of  cable  is  only  half  efficient. 

The  demonstrations  brought  the  Conrath  piler  to  many  com- 
munities for  the  first  time.  Keen  interest  was  manifested  in 
this  man-saving  machine.  Blue  prints  were  distributed  show- 
ing the  details  of  the  construction.  When  the  supply  was  ex- 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


hausted  people  were  seen  copying  t'he  plan  so  that  they  could  f 
go  home  and  build  one  like  the  model.  The  Frost  trip  was  im-  I 
proved  during  the  demonstrations. 

The  organization  of  land  clearing  units  of  four  or  five  neigh- 
bors to  purchase  machinery  and  equipment  and  to  exchange  $ 
help  was  urged.  At  Holcombe,  the  first  land  clearing  unit  was  4 
organized.  For  about  $50  each  six  neighbors  bought  a stump 
puller  with  complete  equipment.  They  elected  a foreman  and 
exchanged  help  to  get  a crew  of  five  men.  More  of  these  land  I 
clearing  units  are  needed  in  Wisconsin. 

A greater  respect  was  developed  for  modern  engineering  1 
tools  and  methods.  Land  clearing  was  lifted  to  the  plane  of 
an  art  based  on  science.  The  aim  was  to  reduce  the  cost  and  i 
the  backaches.  The  motion  pictures  of  the  evening  meetings  I 
showed  methods  that  could  not  be  used  in  the  field,  either  due  . 
to  lack  of  equipment  or  to  bad  weather. 

Questions  for  Further  Study 

Methods  of  brushing.  Many  areas  have  been  brushed  and 
grassed  and  made  ready  for  stumping  easily.  The  question  is, 
how  has  this  been  done?  The  farmer  can  recite  his  methods 
in  a very  general  way  but  essential  details  of  the  methods  are 
invariably  lacking.  Accurate  data  on  the  cost  and  method  of 
brushing,  and  the  method  of  seeding,  pasturing,  and  haying 
would  be  valuable. 

Cheaper  grades  of  dynamite.  Cheap  grades  of  dynamite 
lower  than  20  per  cent  may  be  used.  The  economy  of  this 
needs  investigation.  The  proper  amount  of  dynamite  to  be 
used  in  combination  with  the  stump  puller  also  may  be  stand-, 
ardized  further  than  it  is  now. 

Pulling  before  cracking  or  pulling  after  cracking.  Another 
mooted  question  is  the  advisability  of  pulling  before  cracking 
as  compared  with  pulling  after  cracking.  Each  method  has 
its  advantages  and  opinions  vary  as  to  its  disadvantages. 

Size  of  crew.  Three  men  make  a good  crew  for  a stump 
puller.  Perhaps  a five-man  crew  is  more  economical.  The  only 
way  to  find  out  is  to  get  comparative  data. 


Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps 


31 


The  Legislative  Appropriation 

The  Legislature  in  1917  placed  a liberal  sum  at  the  disposal 
of  the  College  of  Agriculture  for  further  investigations  and 
demonstrations  in  land  clearing.  It  was  this  appropriation  that 
made  possible  the  land  clearing  special  for  1917  as  well  as  the 
work  for  1918. 

Experimental  Work  in  1918 

For  1918  the  experimental  work  has  been  divorced  from  the 
demonstrational  work.  The  experimental  work  was  undertaken 
first.  Between  April  22  and  August  14  the  experimental  crew 
of  the  College  stumped  72  acres,  using  different  methods  for 
comparison.  Table  III  gives  a general  description  of  the  ex- 
perimental plots.  Three  men  were  kept  with  the  crew  to  record 
cost  data  for  the  different  methods  employed.  Extreme  care 
will  be  taken  in  analyzing  these  data  before  conclusions  are  an- 
nounced. The  matter  of  choice  between  two  methods  is  a com- 
plicated one  because  of  the  variety  of  local  conditions  encoun- 
tered. Unless  the  data  are  analyzed  carefully  in  the  light  of 
these  varying  conditions,  conclusions  are  apt  to  be  misleading. 


Table  III.— Experimental  Stumping  Plots,  1918 


Place 

Farm 

Acres 

Soil 

Kind  of  stumps 

Madison 

Oollpgn  of  A pririiltnrp. 

5 

Clay 

Chiefly  green  oak 

Holcombe 

Kenneth  Wilcox.. . . 

30 

Loam 

White  and  Norway  pine 

Owen 

Owen  Lumber  Company 

12 

Clay 

White  pine 

Merrill 

Emil  Maas 

10 

Clay 

Hardwood  and  hemlock 

No.  Crandon.. 

County  Poor  Farm 

15 

Clay 

Hardwood  and  hemlock 

Demonstrations  in  1918 

The  Land  Clearing  Special  will  make  18  demonstrations  in 
six  weeks  ending  September  27,  1918.  The  railroad  service  is 
authorized  by  the  United  States  Railroad  Administration,  W. 
G.  McAdoo,  Director  General.  Cooperating  with  the  College 
are:  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  Co.,  Wilmington,  Delaware;  A. 

J.  Kirstin  Co.,  Escanaba,  Michigan;  LaPlant-Choate  Mfg.  Co., 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  295 


Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa;  Chicago,  Milwaukee  & St.  Paul  Railway; 
Chicago  and  North  Western  Railway;  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minne- 
apolis & Omaha  Railway ; and  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  & Sault 
Ste.  Marie  Railway. 

Each  cooperator  furnishes  one  or  more  men.  For  instance, 
in  the  crew  of  three  men  and  a team  used  for  operating  a stump 
puller  the  stump  puller  company  furnishes  one  man,  the  college 
one  man,  and  the  land  owner  one  man  and  a team.  The  rail- 
roads make  no  charge  for  hauling  the  seven  cars  of  equipment 
but  the  College  is'  required  to  pay  the  railroad  fare  of  the  crew 
and  to  board  them  on  the  train. 

The  itinerary  of  the  Land  Clearing  Special  in  1918  included 
demonstrations  at  Wausaukee  in  Marinette  county,  at  Gillett  in 
Oconto,  Deerbrook  in  Langlade,  Hatley  in  Marathon,  Arpin  in 
Wood,  Greenwood  in  Clark,  Westboro  in  Taylor,  Ashland  Junc- 
tion in  Bayfield,  Drummond  in  Bayfield,  Shell  Lake  in  Wash- 
burn, Comstock  in  Barron,  Hillsdale  in  Barron,  Clear  Lake  in 
Polk,  and  Woodville  in  St.  Croix,  all  on  white  pine  stumping. 

At  Bowler  in  Shawano  county,  and  Park  Falls  in  Price  the 
stumping  was  with  white  pine  and  hardwood.  The  demonstra- 
tion at  Fenwood  in  Marathon  was  on  hardwood,  and  at  Glidden 
in  Ashland  on  white  pine  and  poplar. 

The  county  agricultural  agent,  cooperating  with  the  local 
committee,  made  the  local  arrangements  for  the  demonstrations. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


Contagious  Abortion 
Answered 


September,  1918 


Questions 


i \°>\?> 


DR.  F.  B.  HADLEY 


AN  ABORTED  FETAL  CALF 

The  mother  of  this  fetus  was  purposely  infected  with  a large  dose  of  the  abortion 
germs  four  months  after  she  conceived.  This  caused  abortion  during  the  seventh  month 
of  pregnancy.  Note  the  development  at  this  stage. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


THIS  BULLETIN  TELLS  YOU 


How  heavy  the  losses  from  the  abor- 
tion disease  are.  Page  3 

How  contagious  abortion  is  caused. 

Page  5 

How  the  abortion  germ  lives  and 
grows.  Page  5 

How  this  germ  enters  the  body. 

Page  7 

How  the  bull  may  become  infected. 

Page  9 

How  the  abortion  disease  makes  its 
way  into  a herd.  Page  9 

How  cows  act  when  affected. 

Page  12 

How  long  after  exposure  abortion 

occurs.  Page  1 3 

How  serious  results  may  follow  re- 
tained afterbirth.  Page  15 

How  long  after  serving  an  infected 
cow  the  bull  is  dangerous. 

Page  16 


How  to  tell  whether  cattle  have  the 
abortion  disease.  Page  17 

How  the  blood  tests  are  made. 

Page  18 

How  to  draw  a sample  of  blood. 

Page  19 

How  to  manage  a cow  that  has 
aborted.  Page  22 

How  to  remove  a retained  afterbirth. 

Page  23 

How  to  determine  whether  a sterile 
cow  would  respond  to  treatment. 

Page  26 

How  immunity  to  abortion  is  de- 
veloped. Page  2 7 

How  to  tell  whether  an  animal  has 
any  immunity.  Page  28 

How  and  when  to  administer  abor- 
tion vaccine.  Page  31 

How  to  manage  a herd  infected  with 
abortion.  Page  3 3 

How  to  prevent  and  control  the 
abortion  disease.  Page  34 


How  to  account  for  sterility  of  cows. 

Page  16 


How  properly  to  disinfect  a stable. 

Page  36 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions 
Answered 

To  produce  the  millions  of  quarts  of  milk  that  have  put 
Wisconsin  in  the  lead  as  the  greatest  dairy  state,  an  immense 
number  of  cattle  is  kept  on  her  farms.  Of  all  the  diseases 
to  which  these  cattle  are  subject,  the  abortion  disease  is  by 
far  the  most  common  and  important.  This  circular  has  been 
written  to  answer  the  many  questions  that  owners  of  affected 
animals  ask. 

Although  there  are  some  vital  questions  about  this  disease 
that  remain  unanswered,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  the  facts 
which  are  known  be  available  for  the  information  of  interested 
persons,  as  it  is  only  through  an  understanding  of  the  nature 
of  the  malady  that  it  can  ever  be  brought  under  control.  Our 
lack  of  knowledge  about  certain  phases  of  the  abortion  disease 
has  made  it  necessary  to  answer  some  questions  incompletely. 
Later  it  is  hoped  that  experiments  now  under  way  may  shed 
light  upon  these  obscure  conditions. 

Nature,  Extent,  and  Cause 

What  does  the  term  “contagious  abortion”  mean?  The 

term  “contagious  abortion”  is  misleading  and  not  sufficiently 
comprehensive  to  warrant  its  use  in  connection  with  the  dis- 
ease to  which  it  is  popularly  applied.  To  illustrate — it  con- 
veys the  impression  that  the  fetus  must  be  expelled  before  it  is 
mature,  which  is  not  true.  Moreover,  it  does  not  even  imply  that 
many  other  grave  changes  may  occur  as  a result  of  abortion 
infection.  Therefore,  it  is  desirable  to  use  the  more  extensive 
term,  “abortion  disease.”  The  only  justification  for  employ- 
ing the  term  “contagious  abortion”  in  the  title  is  because  it 
has  been  in  use  so  long  that  most  livestock  men  know  the  dis- 
ease only  by  this  name. 

What  does  the  term  “abortion  disease”  mean?  The  term 
“abortion  disease”  is  applied  to  an  affection  of  cattle  that  is 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


produced  as  a result  of  the  invasion  of  the  body  by  a certain 
germ,  that  can  be  transmitted  to  other  animals,  that  affects 
several  animals  in  many  herds,  and  that  runs  a course  of  weeks 
or  even  months.  Scientifically  it  is  known  as  an  infectious, 
communicable  disease  of  cattle,  chronic  and  insidious  in  nature, 
that  confines  itself  largely  to  the  organs  of  reproduction. 

By  what  other  names  is  the  abortion  disease  known?  Be- 
sides contagious  abortion,  this  affection  is  known  as  infectious 
abortion  and  epizootic  abortion.  Some  farmers  refer  to  it  as 
slinking  or  slipping  the  calf;  others  as  premature  birth  of  the 
calf.  i |i  ' 

What  is  known  about  the  prevalence  of  this  disease?  The 
abortion  disease  is  the  most  widespread  of  all  diseases  to  which 
cattle  are  subject.  The  majority  of  purebred  dairy  herds 
are  known  to  be  infected,  while  it  has  also  been  reported  in 
many  beef  herds.  It  is  found  in  many  recently  settled  com- 
munities and  on  open  ranges  through  having  been  introduced 
with  breeding  stock.  Although  it  is  true  that  the  abortion 
disease  may  disappear  as  suddenly  from  a herd  as  it  appeared, 
there  is  a far  greater  probability  that  it  will  smolder  in  the 
herd  for  years,  occasionally  breaking  forth,  until  often  more 
than  50  per  cent  of  all  the  cows  have  aborted  and  75  per  cent 
have  become  infected. 

What  losses  result  from  the  abortion  disease?  The  calf  is 

either  born  dead  or  is  so  weakened  that  it  soon  dies.  Often 
there  is  a reduction  in  the  milk  flow  of  the  cow  for  nearly  a 
year.  Frequently  the  afterbirth  is  retained  and  pus  accumu- 
lates in  the  womb  which  may  result  in  either  acute  generalized 
infection  (blood  poisoning),  or  chronic  catarrh  of  the  uterus 
with  subsequent  sterility.  The  latter  condition  reduces  the 
value  of  the  affected  cow,  and  even  if  conception  does  take 
place,  there  is  a likelihood  that  abortion  will  recur  a second 
or  even  a third  time.  The  secondary  troubles  just  mentioned 
cause  greater  losses  and  are  more  difficult  to  control. 

What  is  the  approximate  yearly  loss  from  the  abortion  dis- 
ease in  Wisconsin?  It  is  estimated  that  about  8 per  cent  of 
all  milch  cows  abort  each  year.  Assuming  that  the  loss  is 
$25  a head,  which  certainly  seems  to  be  a reasonable  esti- 
mate, considering  the  high  prices  of  feed  and  milk,  the  total 
loss  for  Wisconsin  can  be  computed  if  the  number  of  cows  is 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


5 


known.  The  census  reports  for  1917  give  the  cow  population 
of  Wisconsin  as  1,785,000  head.  On  this  basis  the  annual  loss 
would  be  about  $3,570,000.  This  figure  represents  in  a meas- 
ure the  stupendous  toll  levied  by  the  abortion  disease  and  its 
great  economic  importance  to  Wisconsin’s  farmers.  It  is  ap- 
parent that  the  loss  per  cow  to  owners  of  purebred  animals 
is  much  more  than  to  those  who  own  grade  and  common  cattle. 

What  is  the  cause  of  contagious  abortion?  A microorgan- 
ism or  minute  germ  (the  abortion  bacillus  of  Bang)  is 
known  to  be  the  sole  cause  of  contagious  abortion.  A very 
powerful  microscope  is  needed  to  see  the  organism  on  account 
of  its  extremely  small  size.  It  should  be  understood  that  other 
germs  may  invade  the  tissues  after  the  abortion  organisms  have 
caused  damage.  These  organisms  are  the  ones  often  respon- 
sible for  sterility  and  the  other  complicating  diseases. 

On  what  does  the  abortion  germ  thrive  best?  Fetal  tissues 
and  milk  are  best  suited  for  the  growth  of  the  abortion  bacillus. 
It  can  also  live  for  some  time  in  the  womb  and  womb  dis- 
charges after  abortion  has  occurred.  From  the  fact  that  its 
natural  foods  are  produced  in  the  womb  and  udder,  it  follows 
that  these  organs  would  most  frequently  become  infected  and 
act  as  the  abode  of  the  germ. 

Can  the  abortion  germ  grow  outside  the  body?  Although 
it  is  difficult  to  get  the  germ  of  abortion  to  grow  on  artificial 
culture  media  when  first  isolated,  after  a few  generations  it 
can  be  propagated  without  difficulty  in  the  laboratory.  (See 
section  entitled  “ Means  of  Diagnosis.”) 

How  long  do  abortion  germs  live  outside  the  body?  With- 
out knowing  the  conditions  under  which  the  germs  are  situated, 
a definite  answer  cannot  be  made  to  this  question.  Under  ex- 
perimental conditions  the  germs  soon  die  upon  direct  exposure 
to  sunlight.  In  moist  places  they  may  live  for  weeks  or 
months.  We  have  isolated  the  germ  from  a fetal  calf  that  had 
been  solidly  frozen  for  24  hours,  so  freezing  for  this  length  of 
time  does  not  kill  this  organism.  Bang  and  Stribolt  were  able 
to  isolate  the  abortion  bacillus  in  pure  culture  from  two  fetuses 
that  had  been  dead  five  and  nine  months  respectively.  The 
uterine  discharge  kept  on  ice  contained  living  organisms  after 
seven  months.  Therefore,  it  is  evident  that  the  germ  may  live 


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for  long  periods  outside  the  body,  but  it  does  not  increase  in 
numbers  under  such  conditions. 

Does  abortion  occur  in  cattle  from  other  causes  than  infec- 
tion with  these  germs?  Practically  all  abortions  are  due  to 

contagion  and  the  sooner  the  cattle  owner  realizes  this,  the 
sooner  will  he  be  able  to  prevent  further  losses.  However,  a 
continuous  high  fever  from  any  cause  may  produce  abortion. 
Injuries  or  defects  that  damage  the  womb  or  fetal  membranes 
or  in  any  way  disturb  the  nutrition  of  the  fetus  may  also  cause 


FIG.  1.— COWS  AT  PASTURE  IN  WISCONSIN 

It  is  in  such  valuable  purebred  dairy  cattle  as  these,  the  progeny  of  which  is  worth 
thousands  of  dollars,  that  the  abortion  disease  produces  the  greatest  losses. 


cows  to  abort.  It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  slipping, 
goring,  kicks,  falls,  and  similar  accidents  ever  cause  abortion, 
the  opinion  of  many  dairymen  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

Are  certain  feeds  capable  of  producing  abortion?  It  is 
known  that  a ration  composed  of  wheat  and  other  products  of 
the  wheat  plant  reduces  the  resistive  power  of  the  cow  to  dis- 
eases and  often  causes  her  to  calve  prematurely.  Experi- 
ments conducted  at  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  point  to  a lack  of  sufficient  mineral  matter  in  the  wheat 
ration  as  one  disturbing  factor  and  to  some  poisonous  mater- 
ial, as  yet  of  unknown  character,  as  another.  Corn,  on  the 
other  hand,  contains  all  the  elements  necessary  for  successful 
growth  and  reproduction.  There  is  little  reliable  evidence  to 
support  the  common  belief  that  moldy,  spoiled,  and  smutty 
grain  or  roughage  is  capable  of  producing  abortion.  Practi- 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


7 


cally  every  attempt  to  produce  abortion  by  feeding  pregnant 
cows  such  feeds  has  failed. 

Does  contagious  abortion  ever  occur  in  other  species  of  farm 
animals?  Reports  of  serious  outbreaks  of  abortion  in  mares, 
sows,  and  ewes  are  on  record.  However,  a specific  germ  for 
each  animal  species  has  been  found  responsible  for  the  abor- 
tions. In  other  words,  contagious  abortion  of  cattle  is  not 
transmissible  to  horses,  swine  or  sheep,  or  the  forms  affecting 
these  animals  to  cattle  under  natural  conditions.  We  have 
produced  abortion  experimentally  in  ewes  by  injecting  large 
doses  of  the  germ  that  causes  the  disease  in  cattle.  Under  or- 
dinary farm  conditions  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  ewes 
or  other  species  of  farm  animals  ever  abort  as  a result  of  in- 
fection with  the  germs  that  cause  cattle  abortion. 

Acquirement  of  Natural  Infection 

Is  the  abortion  disease  ever  inherited?  We  have  demon- 
strated the  presence  of  abortion  germs  in  the  stomach  contents 
of  prematurely  born  calves,  but  their  dams  also  were  always 
found  to  be  infected.  These  calves  probably  acquired  the  in- 
fection through  having  swallowed  placental  fluid  containing 
the  abortion  germs.  This  does  not  constitute  inheritance  in 
the  biologic  meaning  of  the  term.  The  blood  tests,  that  will 
be  described  later,  show  that  an  infected  cow  always  gives 
birth  to  an  infected  calf.  When  the  cow  is  not  infected  the 
calf  fails  to  react  to  the  blood  tests  at  birth. 

How  do  the  germs  of  abortion  gain  entrance  to  the  body? 
The  abortion  organisms  may  enter  the  body  by  any  one  of  the 
following  paths:  the  digestive  tract,  with  the  food  or  drink; 
the  genital  tract,  during  sexual  intercourse  or  by  contamin- 
ated objects  and  fluids  introduced  either  intentionally  or  acci- 
dently ; the  broken  skin,  as  a cut  or  wound ; the  udder,  either  by 
penetration  from  the  inside  or  introduction  through  the  teat 
canal. 

Does  age  make  any  difference  in  liability  to  abortion?  Heif- 
ers are  undoubtedly  more  apt  to  become  infected  than  are 
calves  or  cows.  A careful  study  of  diseased  herds  has  shown 
that  more  than  80  per  cent  of  the  cases  acquire  the  infection  be- 
fore the  second  calving.  The  most  favorable  time  for  infec- 
tion to  gain  entrance  seems  to  be  shortly  after  the  heifer  has 


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dropped  her  first  calf  and  when  the  mouth  of  the  womb  is  still 
open.  Many  heifers  must  become  infected  earlier,  else  they 
would  not  abort  their  first  calf. 

Why  are  heifers  more  frequently  affected  than  older  cows? 
Apparently  the  heifer  has  less  resistance  to  the  abortion  germs 
than  the  cow,  which  seems  to  develop  more  or  less  protection 
against  these  germs.  (See  section  entitled  “Development  of 
Immunity.”) 

What  percentage  of  heifers  abort?  Although  heifers  acquire 
the  abortion  disease  and  abort  more  frequently  than  do  cows, 
heifers  in  different  herds  show  a great  difference  in  their  abil- 
ity to  withstand  the  effects  of  the  disease.  If  the  disease  has 
established  a firm  foothold  and  no  steps  are  taken  to  control 
it,  a large  percentage  of  the  heifers  is  likely  to  abort.  In  one 
very  large  herd  on  which  careful  records  were  kept  over  a pe- 
riod of  three  years,  1,238  heifers  conceived.  Of  these,  195,  or 
16  per  cent,  w^ere  known  to  have  aborted. 

When  do  cows  become  infected?  If  abortion  occurs  early 
in  the  gestation  period  infection  must  have  taken  place  near 
the  time  of  breeding.  In  cases  where  the  fetus  is  carried  seven 
months  or  longer,  it  is  highly  probable  that  infection  occurred 
sometime  after  conception.  The  statement  has  been  made  by 
one  investigator  that  once  the  uterine  seal,  which  forms  shortly 
after  conception,  is  perfected,  there  is  no  danger  of  infection 
occurring,  and  the  cow  will  carry  the  fetus  to  term.  At  pres- 
ent we  are  not  at  all  certain  that  this  is  true. 

At  what  age  may  calves  become  infected?  Calves  may  ac- 
quire the  disease  before  as  well  as  after  birth.  In  our  experi- 
mental work  we  have  found  that  the  newborn  calf  of  an  in- 
fected cow  usually  reacts  to  the  blood  tests  in  the  same  way  as 
the  dam,  so  it  must  have  become  infected  before  it  was  born. 
That  the  fetal  calf  swallows  the  fluid  surrounding  it  is  shown 
by  finding  its  hairs  and  the  germs  in  the  stomach.  When 
calves  are  fed  from  birth  on  raw  milk  containing  the  abortion 
germs  they  seldom  react  to  the  blood  tests.  This  would  indi- 
cate that  the  calf  is  not  easily  infected  by  way  of  the  digestive 
tract. 

Does  the  bull  become  infected?  With  a few  notable  excep- 
tions, all  attempts  to  isolate  the  specific  abortion  organisms 
from  the  bull  have  failed.  In  fact  the  bull  is  often  the  only 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


9 


member  of  a diseased  herd  that  is  free  from  infection  with 
this  germ.  Unquestionably,  the  male  often  becomes  infected 
with  the  germs  that  produce  the  various  secondary  diseases  in 
the  female,  which  are  properly  classed  under  the  more  inclu- 
sive term  “ abortion  disease.’’ 

How  may  a bull  become  infected?  Mating  with  an  infected 
cow  appears  to  be  the  most  common  way.  Other  ways  of  in- 
fection are  the  same  as  those  mentioned  for  the  cow. 

After  a cow  aborts  once,  is  it  true  that  subsequent  abortions 
are  always  due  to  the  original  infection?  Most  certainly  not, 
as  it  is  quite  possible  that  a new  or  re-infection  of  even  greater 
virulence  than  the  former  has  occurred  from  a fresh  source. 
In  such  a case  the  cow  might  abort  earlier  than  she  did  the  first 
time.  Some  authorities  believe  that  later  abortions  may  be 
due  to  the  organisms  that  are  responsible  for  the  complications 
which  follow  abortion. 

Are  all  breeds  of  cattle  equally  susceptible  to  abortion  in- 
fection? There  appears  to  be  no  difference  in  the  susceptibil- 
ity of  different  breeds  of  cattle  to  abortion  infection.  How- 
ever, as  there  is  more  traffic  in  certain  breeds  than  in  others, 
a greater  chance  of  spreading  the  disease  among  them  is  pos- 
sible. Investigation  shows  that  cattle  of  these  breeds  are  more 
often  infected.  Until  recently  range  cattle,  which  belong 
largely  to  the  beef  breeds,  were  relatively  free,  but  now  many 
of  them  are  known  to  be  affected.  It  is  reasonable  to  believe 
that  under  exactly  similar  surroundings  cattle  of  different 
breeds  would  acquire  the  disease  with  the  same  uniformity. 

Methods  of  Spreading  Abortion  Disease 

By  what  means  may  abortion  be  introduced  into  a herd? 

The  most  common  source  of  infection  is  the  cow  which  has  a 
vaginal  discharge  as  a result  of  abortion  infection.  Raw  milk 
and  milk  products  containing  the  germs  are  thought  by  some 
to  be  factors  in  the  spread  of  the  disease.  Less  frequently 
than  has  been  supposed  does  the  bull  introduce  abortion  into  a 
herd,  yet,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  the  bull  may  act  as  a me- 
chanical carrier  of  the  germs.  It  may  be  impossible  to  find 
out  the  exact  way  in  which  the  disease  made  its  way  into  a 
given  herd. 


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When  is  an  aborting  cow  most  dangerous  to  others?  Just 
before  and  just  after  a cow  aborts  she  gives  off  large  numbers 
of  abortion  germs  in  the  discharge  from  the  vagina.  Often 
this  fluid  is  literally  alive  with  the  germs.  This  discharge  is 
capable  of  infecting  other  cows  and  is  the  most  common  and 
important  agent  in  the  spread  of  the  disease  from  one  animal 
to  another  and  one  herd  to  another. 


FTG.  2— A “CARRIER”  OF  ABORTION  GERMS 

Although  this  cow  is  apparently  healthy,  she  has  been  affected  with  the  abortion 
disease  for  six  years.  During  this  time  she  aborted  three  fetuses  and  gave  birth  to 
three  normal  calves.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  she  has  been  the  means  of 
infecting  many  other  cows  in  the  herd. 


What  is  meant  by  a ‘ ‘carrier”  of  disease?  A disease  car- 
rier is  an  animal  that  has  had  an  attack  of  a certain  disease 
and  recovered,  but  is  still  discharging  in  the  secretions  and 
excretions  of  the  body  the  living,  virulent  germs.  If  these 
germs  get  into  the  bodies  of  other  susceptible  animals  they 
are  capable  of  causing  the  same  disease. 

Are  cows  ever  carriers  of  the  abortion  germs?  Some  cows 
have  been  known  to  act  as  carriers  for  several  years  after 
they  have  ceased  to  abort,  their  milk  containing  the  germs 
continuously.  What  is  even  more  important  is  that  some 
cows  which  have  always  calved  normally  may  be  carriers 
and  spreaders  of  abortion  germs.  There  is  proof  that  the 
udder  acts  as  a breeding  ground  for  the  germs.  In  non-preg- 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


11 


nant  cows  the  udder  seems  to  be  the  only  organ  in  the  body 
Where  the  abortion  bacilli  can  live. 

May  calves  be  the  means  of  transmitting  the  infection? 
There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  calves  while  being  fed 
on  milk  containing  virulent  abortion  bacilli  may  be  a factor 
in  the  spread  of  abortion.  Therefore,  to  be  on  the  safe  side 
it  would  be  well  to  postpone  introducing  calves  from  a herd 
in  which  abortion  exists  until  at  least  one  month  after  all  raw 
milk  has  been  withheld  from  their  ration. 

What  part  does  the  bull  play  in  spreading  the  disease? 
Conflicting  views  prevail  among  livestock  men  in  regard  to 
the  importance  of  the  bull  as  a disseminator  of  contagious 
abortion.  The  writer  and  assistants  have  carried  out  a care- 
fully controlled  experiment  to  shed  light  on  this  important 
question.  Abortion-infected  bulls  were  mated  with  abortion- 
free,  virgin  heifers.  A full  report  of  this  work  is  printed  in 
the  Journal  of  the  American  Veterinary  Medical  Association, 
November,  1916.  The  conclusions  are  summarized: 

(1)  Bulls  may  become  infected  with  abortion  bacilli. 

(2)  Bulls  that  reacted  to  the  blood  tests  were  incapable 
of  disseminating  the  abortion  disease  to  the  virgin,  abortion- 
free  heifers  with  which  they  were  mated. 

(3)  Bulls  appear  to  possess  a sexual  or  individual  immu- 
nity to  abortion  infection  that  renders  them  less  susceptible 
than  cows  and  induces  a milder  form  of  the  disease. 

(4)  Bulls,  when  infected,  have  the  ability  to  weaken  the  in- 
fecting germs  of  abortion  in  their  bodies  in  a relatively  short 
time,  so  that  they  will  be  safe  for  the  service  of  non-infected 
cows. 

(5)  Cows  usually  acquire  the  abortion  disease  from  other 
cows  instead  of  the  genitalia  of  bulls  at  time  of  service,  as 
has  been  supposed. 

Is  it  dangerous  to  permit  a bull  to  serve  a cow  that  has  pre- 
viously aborted?  It  has  been  shown  that  the  bull  seldom  ac- 
quires the  disease.  This  should  not  be  taken  as  meaning  that 
he  may  not  act  as  a mechanical  carrier  of  various  disease-pro- 
ducing germs  from  an  infected  to  a healthy  cow.  Therefore, 
the  precautions  detailed  elsewhere  should  be  taken  in  caring 
for  the  bull.  Even  if  he  has  been  permitted  to  serve  a cow 
that  is  later  learned  to  have  aborted,  the  danger  to  cows  sub- 


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sequently  served  would  not  be  so  great  as  from  other  cows  in 
the  herd  that  are  known  to  have  harbored  the  infection. 

Is  there  danger  of  spreading  abortion  by  means  of  milk? 
There  is  no  doubt  that  mixed  whole  milk,  skimmed  milk,  and 
buttermilk  from  several  herds  contain  living  abortion  germs. 
When  this  is  fed  to  calves  there  is  a probability  of  their  be- 
coming infected.  To  prevent  the  spread  of  milk-borne  diseases, 
the  Wisconsin  State  Department  of  Agriculture  requires  the 
owners  of  all  creameries,  skimming  stations,  cheese  factories, 
and  condenseries  to  pasteurize  all  by-products  before  returning 
them  to  any  farm  or  feeding  station.  The  strict  enforcement 
of  this  regulation  should  be  a decided  help  in  preventing  the 
dissemination  of  the  abortion  disease,  as  well  as  all  other  in- 
fectious diseases  of  cattle,  particularly  tuberculosis. 

Would  there  be  danger  from  a pasture  in  which  a cow 
aborted?  In  a previous  answer  it  was  shown  that  the  life  of 
the  abortion  germ  outside  the  body  varies  quite  widely  with 
conditions.  However,  it  is  certain  the  alternate  freezing  and 
thawing  that  occurs  during  the  winter  • and  spring  months, 
combined  with  other  natural  destructive  agencies,  can  be  de- 
pended upon  to  weaken  all  abortion  germs  that  may  have  been 
left  in  a pasture  by  infected  cattle  before  the  next  spring,  so 
that  no  danger  need  be  feared. 

Effect  on  the  Animal 

What  are  the  symptoms  of  abortion  infection?  During  the 

early  months  of  pregnancy  no  symptoms  of  abortion  infection 
are  evident.  If  the  fetus  dies  at  this  stage,  it  is  expelled  with- 
out causing  any  marked  disturbance.  Later  in  pregnancy 
abortion  is  announced  by  swelling  of  the  udder,  congestion  of 
the  external  genital  organs,  thickening  of  the  milk,  and  a vag- 
inal discharge  of  a red-brown  or  gray  color  which  may  or  may 
not  have  a bad  odor.  The  afterbirth  is  often  retained  and 
the  cow  may  develop  a stinking  discharge  from  the  uterus  that 
will  prevent  conception.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that 
cows  may  be  infected  with  abortion  without  showing  any  of 
these  symptoms.  This  means  that  actual  abortion  of  the  fetal 
calf  does  not  have  to  occur  to  constitute  abortion  infection — 
an  important  fact  not  generally  appreciated. 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


13 


In  what  organs  of  the  cow  do  the  germs  usually  locate?  The 

space  between  the  walls  of  the  uterus  and  the  fetal  membranes 
is  the  place  where  the  germs  .find  conditions  especially  well 
suited  for  growth.  They  may  also  locate  in  the  fallopian  tubes. 
The  udders  of  some  cows  have  been  found  to  harbor  the  abor- 
tion germs  for  long  periods. 

How  is  the  uterus  or  womb  affected?  It  is  in  the  uterus  that 
abortion  infection  produces  the  greatest  amount  of  damage. 
Here  the  germs  multiply  in  such  numbers  as  to  interfere  with 
the  passage  of  nourishment  between  the  mother  and  the  fetus. 
This  usually  results  in  death  of  the  fetus  and  often  is  followed 
by  retention  of  the  afterbirth.  A sequel  in  many  cases  is  an 
accumulation  of  pus  in  the  womb.  This  is  caused  by  pus-pro- 
ducing germs  which  gain  entrance  at  the  time  or  after  the 
fetus  is  expelled.  In  such  cases  sterility  is  likely  to  re- 
sult either  from  the  inflammation  that  accompanies  the  condi- 
tion or  from  the  pus  itself. 

How  long  after  exposure  will  a cow  abort?  The  incubation 
period  of  abortion,  or  the  time  between  the  entrance  of  the 
germs  into  the  body  and  the  occurrence  of  abortion,  varies  with 
the  resistance  of  the  animal  and  the  virulence  of  the  infecting 
germs.  When  the  resistive  forces  of  the  body  are  high  and 
the  virulence  of  the  organism  is  low,  the  animal  does  not  abort 
until  late  in  pregnancy  or  may  never  abort.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  resistive  forces  are  weak  and  the  abortion  germs 
are  strong  in  either  number  or  virulence,  especially  in  both, 
the  incubation  period  is  short  and  the  course  of  the  disease  is 
rapid.  In  this  case  abortion  occurs  early. 

At  what  period  of  pregnancy  does  abortion  usually  occur? 
There  is  no  set  period  at  which  abortion  may  be  said  to  occur. 
Some  cows  abort  so  soon  after  being  bred  that  none  of  the 
characteristic  symptoms  of  abortion  are  evident  and  the  fetus 
is  so  small  as  to  escape  notice.  Other  cows  do  not  abort  until 
the  sixth  or  seventh  month  of  pregnancy. 

Does  infection  with  the  abortion  germs  always  result  in 
abortion?  When  the  abortion  germs  lack  the  necessary  dis- 
ease-producing properties,  or  the  cows  have  marked  resistance, 
abortion  does  not  occur.  Moreover,  when  the  germs  do  not  get 
into  the  body  until  late  in  pregnancy  they  do  not  have  time 


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to  produce  enough  damage  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  nu- 
trition of  the  fetus  and  to  cause  its  premature  expulsion. 

How  long  may  the  germs  of  abortion  live  in  the  cow’s  body? 
Undoubtedly  there  is  a great  difference  in  the  ability  of  dif- 
ferent cows  to  throw  off  the  germs.  Schroeder  and  Cotton  be- 
lieve that  the  germ  lives  but  a few  weeks  in  the  empty  uterus, 
but  in  exceptional  cases  may  inhabit  the  udder  for  months  or 
even  years.  The  reason  for  this  would  seem  to  be  a lack  of 


FIG.  3.— COW  INFECTED  WITH  ABORTION  DISEASE 

This  cow  aborted  a 197-day  fetus  March  6,  1918.  The  specific  germs  of  abortion  were 
recovered  from  the  liver  of  the  fetus  by  inoculating  one  of  the  guinea  pigs  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  — -M 


suitable  food  material  in  the  former  organ  and  a plentiful 
supply  in  the  latter. 

When  do  the  germs  of  abortion  exert  their  greatest  damage? 

After  the  uterine  seal  is  formed  the  air  is  shut  out  and  the 
fetal  tissues  develop.  These  conditions  are  .most  suitable  for 
the  growth  of  the  abortion  germs  and  it  is  then  that  they  pro- 
duce the  greatest  harm. 

What  is  the  cause  of  retention  of  the  afterbirth  or  placental 
membranes?  Retained  placenta  is  always  the  result  of  me- 
tritis or  inflammation  in  the  womb.  Metritis  is  caused  by  the 
germs  of  abortion  and  of  other  infections,  as  well  as  by  filth 
and  mechanical  and  chemical  irritants.  Retention  of  the 
placenta  should  be  regarded  as  a complication  of,  or  second- 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


15 


ary  to  metritis.  The  inflammatory  changes  are  often  ac- 
companied by  swelling  in  the  cotyledons  which  prevents  ready 
separation  of  the  fetal  and  maternal  membranes. 

What  are  the  symptoms  of  retention  of  the  afterbirth?  The 
symptoms  of  this  condition  vary  with  the  length  of  time  that 
has  elapsed  since  calving.  Usually  a portion  of  the  membranes 
hangs  from  the  vagina,  but  sometimes  nothing  is  visible.  A 
discharge  of  varying  degrees  of  offensiveness  is  always  present. 
Neglected  cows  develop  a fever  and  lose  appetite. 

What  may  be  the  results  of  retention  of  the  afterbirth? 
When  the  fetal  membranes  become  putrid  the  cow  may  develop 
one  or  more  of  the  following  symptoms  of  disease:  (1)  loss 

of  appetite;  (2)  reduction  of  milk;  (3)  loss  of  flesh;  (4)  blood 
poisoning;  (5)  inflammation  of  the  womb  with  accumulation  of 
pus;  (6)  a foul-smelling,  persistent  discharge;  (7)  sterility; 
(8)  death. 

How  has  it  been  shown  that  the  udder  may  become  infected 
with  abortion  germs?  Schroeder  and  Cotton  have  repeatedly 
demonstrated  that  when  abortion  bacilli  are  injected  into  the 
udder  through  the  teat,  the  bacilli  establish  themselves  in 
that  organ  and  the  cow  becomes  infected.  Other  investigators 
have  shown  that  milk  drawn  under  sterile  conditions  may  con- 
tain these  organisms. 

Do  the  abortion  germs  bring  about  any  visible  change  in  the 
udder?  Careful  pathologic  examinations  of  the  udders  of 
cows  that  were  known  to  have  continuously  eliminated  the  germs 
of  contagious  abortion  in  their  milk  for  a long  time  previous 
to  slaughter  failed  to  show  visible  lesions  of  any  kind. 

Can  the  abortion  germs  pass  from  other  points  of  entrance  to 
the  uterus?  Positive  proof  is  available  that  once  the  germs  of 
abortion  get  into  the  body  they  are  capable  of  passing  to  the 
uterus. 

Do  the  ovaries  ever  become  infected?  It  is  believed  that 
certain  ovarian  diseases  which  destroy  the  egg-producing  func- 
tions of  the  ovaries  are  due  to  the  inroads  of  the  abortion 
bacilli,  although  in  the  opinion  of  Bernath  the  other  germs  that 
gam  entrance  to  the  genital  organs  after  the  calf  is  expelled 
are  responsible  for  the  ovarian  disturbances. 

Does  the  blood  contain  the  germs?  Very  rarely,  if  ever, 
does  the  blood  under  natural  conditions  contain  the  germs. 


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Even  the  blood  of  non-pregnant  cows,  into  whose  veins  abor- 
tion germs  have  been  experimentally  injected  in  great  num- 
bers, does  not  contain  them  after  a few  hours. 

Does  abortion  infection  always  result  in  the  death  and  ex- 
pulsion of  the  fetus?  The  usual  result  of  infection  with  the 
abortion  germs  is  death  and  expulsion  of  the  fetus  before  term. 
Occasionally  when  the  fetus  dies,  it  is  retained  for  weeks  or 
months  and  gradually  dries  up  and  assumes  the  condition  of  a 
mummy.  Again  the  fetus  is  carried  to  full  term  and  the  calf 
is  born  alive,  but  is  so  weak  that  it  either  dies  in  a little  while 
or  fails  to  thrive.  Some  cows  have  enough  resistance  to  with- 
stand the  attacks  of  abortion  germs  and  give  birth  to  calves 
that  are  in  every  way  normal  and  healthy.  For  these  reasons 
the  act  of  abortion  should  not  be  taken  as  a basis  for  measur- 
ing the  prevalence  of  abortion  disease  in  a herd. 

Does  the  bull  harbor  the  germs?  A much  smaller  percent- 
age of  bulls  in  infected  herds  become  infected  than  of  cows. 
The  germs  of  abortion  have  been  isolated  from  the  genital  or- 
gans of  bulls  in  only  a few  cases.  (See  section  entitled  “Ef- 
fect on  the  Animal.”) 

How  long  after  serving  an  infected  cow  is  a bull  dangerous? 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  a bull  which  has  served 
an  infected  cow  will  be  able  within  a few  weeks  to  free  itself 
of  all  abortion  germs  which  may  have  contaminated  its  genital 
organs  at  the  time  of  service. 

What  is  the  most  common  complication  or  sequel  of  abor- 
tion infection?  The  commonest  and  most  serious  complica- 
tion of  contagious  abortion  is  sterility  or  barrenness.  This 
affection  causes  even  greater  losses  than  abortion. 

Is  sterility  due  to  other  causes?  Yes,  a number  of  other 
germs,  particularly  those  that  produce  pus,  may  cause  sterility. 
These  are  more  likely  to  be  present  if  the  cow  has  had  diffi- 
culty in  calving  or  a retained  afterbirth  and  pus  have  collected 
in  the  uterus.  Still  other  causes  are  overfeeding  and  lack  of 
exercise,  diseases  and  defects  in  other  organs  of  the  genital 
system,  and  certain  nervous  affections. 

What  are  the  symptoms  of  sterility?  Some  sterile  cows  come 
in  heat  regularly  but  fail  to  conceive  even  after  repeated  ser- 
vice ; other  sterile  cows  never  come  in  heat. 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


17 


How  does  sterility  handicap  the  cow?  It  renders  her  incap- 
able of  producing  young.  Next  to  death  this  is  the  greatest 
disaster  that  can  befall  the  purebred  cow,  for  no  matter  how 
great  her  individual  excellence,  she  is  unable  to  transmit  her 
attributes  to  posterity  and  is  only  fit  for  the  block. 

What  may  be  expected  from  an  aborting  cow?  Unless 
given  early  and  expert  attention,  a cow  which  has  aborted  is 
not  likely  to  prove  profitable  as  a producer  unless  she  either 
is  above  t'he  average  in  point  of  production,  or  is  of  pure  or 
especially  good  breeding.  The  reasons  for  this  statement  are : 
(1)  the  milk  flow  will  be  materially  less  than  normal;  (2) 
there  is  likely  to  be  some  difficulty  in  getting  her  to  conceive 
promptly;  (3)  there  is  a decided  probability  that  she  will 
abort  in  the  next  gestation  period.  It  should  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  when  properly  treated  she  may  become  the  most 
valuable  animal  of  the  herd. 

Means  of  Diagnosis 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  “diagnosis?”  Diagnosis  is  the 
art  of  determining  the  nature  and  location  of  disease.  It  is 
the  first  step  towards  intelligent  prevention  and  treatment. 
In  a word,  it  is  detecting  what  ails  the  animal. 

How  may  the  abortion  disease  be  diagnosed  in  a herd? 
Besides  the  history  of  the  herd,  which  is  invaluable  in  making 
the  diagnosis,  there  are  several  laboratory  tests  that  are  cap- 
able of  detecting  abortion  infection.  The  two  tests  that  have 
been  found  most  reliable  are:  (1)  the  isolation  of  the  abor- 
tion germs;  (2)  the  blood  test. 

What  is  the  procedure  followed  in  isolating  the  abortion 
germs?  The  germs  of  abortion  may  be  isolated  from  the 
aborted  fetus,  fetal  membranes,  uterine  exudate,  and  infected 
milk  by  either  the  direct  or  indirect  method.  The  direct 
method  consists  in  placing  minute  particles  of  tissue  on  suit- 
able culture  media  which  are  incubated  under  reduced  oxygen 
pressure  for  several  days  at  body  heat.  If  conditions  are 
right  the  organism  will  appear  in  transparent  colonies  about 
the  size  of  a pinhead  on  the  surface  of  the  media.  The  indi- 
rect method  consists  in  injecting  some  of  the  tissue  believed 
to  be  infected  into  a guinea  pig.  The  organism  of  abortion 


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produces  characteristic  lesions  in  the  liver  and  spleen  of  the 
experimental  animal  from  which  it  may  be  recovered  by  the 
direct  method.  The  indirect  method  is  the  more  reliable  and 
the  one  usually  followed  by  laboratory  workers. 

Why  are  the  isolation  methods  not  used  more  generally? 
Because  they  require  very  careful  technique,  and  consume  much 
time,  and  suitable  material  is  not  always  obtainable.  Fur- 
thermore, on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  satisfying  the  condi- 
tions for  growth  of  the  abortion  organism,  they  are  fre- 
quently not  successful  even  if  the  germ  is  present.  In  ex- 
perimental work,  however,  they  are  of  great  value.  The  in- 
direct method  of  isolation,  although  very  reliable,  is  too  slow 
and  expensive  to  be  used  for  testing  large  numbers  of  cattle. 

How  many  kinds  of  blood  tests  are  in  use?  Two,  the  com- 
plement fixation  test  and  the  agglutination  test.  They  are 
recognized  as  the  only  practical  methods  of  diagnosing  con- 
tagious abortion  on  a large  scale. 

What  do  these  tests  demonstrate?  They  show  the  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  certain  specific  chemical  substances,  known 
as  antibodies,  that  are  produced  as  a result  of  the  animal  hav- 
ing become  infected  with  the  abortion  germs.  Although 
these  blood  tests  indicate  whether  the  antibodies  are  present, 
they  do  not  demonstrate  the  presence  of  germs  in  a blood 
sample. 

How  is  each  test  made?  The  complement  fixation  test  is 
quite  complicated  as  in  making  it  the  blood  from  animals  of 
four  different  species  must  be  employed. 

The  agglutination  test  is  simpler  and  consists  of  adding 
graduated  amounts  of  the  blood  serum  of  tfhe  animal  to  be 
tested  to  one  cubic  centimeter  of  a milky  suspension  of  the 
abortion  organism.  The  tubes  are  incubated  for  six  hours 
and  then  placed  in  a refrigerator  over  night.  When  the  or- 
ganisms clump  or  agglutinate  in  the  bottom  of  the  tube  and 
the  liquid  above  is  perfectly  clear,  the  test  is  interpreted  as 
positive  and  is  indicated  by  a plus  ( + ) sign.  A negative  re- 
action is  indicated  by  a minus  ( — ) sign. 

Which  blood  test  is  the  more  reliable?  There  is  little  dif- 
ference. At  one  time  it  was  thought  that  the  fixation  test 
was  in  closer  harmony  with  clinical  data.  This  would  be 
true  only  when  this  test  is  conducted  with  extreme  care  as  to 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


19 


details  of  manipulation  and  interpretation  of  results.  While 
neither  test  is  infallible  and  capable  of  detecting  all  cases, 
both  are  as  close  to  the  actual  condition  as  it  is  possible  for 
any  biologic  test  used  in  diagnostic  work  to  come. 

Does  a positive  reaction  to  the  blood  tests  tell  whether  a 
cow  will  or  has  aborted?  No,  it  simply  demonstrates  that  the 
antibodies,  produced  as  the  result  of  the  abortion  germs,  are 
present  in  the  animal’s  body.  A reacting  cow  may  have 
aborted,  may  abort,  or  may  never  abort.  When  the  blood 
sample  is  drawn  very  close  to  the  time  of  aborting,  the  reac- 
tion is  often  less  marked  and  may  even  be  negative,  while  it 
would  have  been  positive  earlier  or  later.  Furthermore,  the 
disappearance  of  the  germs  from  the  animal’s  body  is  not  fol- 
lowed at  once  by  a disappearance  of  these  antibodies. 

How  long  after  abortion  will  cows  continue  to  react  with 
the  blood  tests?  For  varying  lengths  of  time.  More  con- 
tinue to  react,  especially  those  with  udder  infection,  than 
change  from  a positive  to  a negative  reaction.  The  Station  has 
records  on  some  cows  that  have  given  a positive  reaction  every 
time  the  tests  were  applied  over  a period  ofsix  years. 

How  is  a blood  sample  taken  from  an  animal?  The  hollow, 
pointed  needle  of  a veterinary  hypodermic  syringe  is  plunged 
through  the  skin  into  a vein.  The  blood  may  be  drawn 
from  a milk  vein  or  a jugular  vein,  whichever  is  more  conven- 
ient. If  the  latter  is  chosen,  it  first  should  be  engorged  with 
blood  by  drawing  a rope  tightly  around  the  neck  just  in  front 
of  the  shoulders.  The  animal’s  head  is  held  to  one  side  by  a 
halter  rope  or  “bull  lead”  in  the  nose.  No  special  precau- 
tions are  necessary  except  that  the  needle  be  clean.  The 
blood  is  caught  in  a sterile  test  tube  or  small  bottle  as  it  flows 
from  the  needle. 

Where  can  one  have  these  blood  tests  made?  At  the  Vet- 
erinary Science  Laboratory  of  the  College  of  Agriculture, 
University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison. 

What  is  the  charge  for  making  blood  tests?  A charge  of 
10  cents  is  made  to  residents  of  Wisconsin  for  testing  each 
blood  sample.  This  is  only  enough  to  cover  the  cost  of  mate- 
rials actually  used.  Residents  of  other  states  are  required  to 


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pay  25  cents  per  test.  Remittances  may  be  made  by  stamps  or 
check. 

Is  there  a test  for  abortion  that  may  be  made  in  the  stable? 

A diagnostic  test  fluid  known  as  abortin,  which  is  prepared 
and  used  much  like  tuberculin  has  been  employed,  but  the  re- 
sults from  its  application  have  been  so  unsatisfactory  that  it 
is  no  longer  used.  A physical  examination  is  not  reliable  as 
a means  of  diagnosis. 


FIG.  4. — AID'S  IN  DIAGNOSING  ABORTION 

One  of  these  guinea  pigs  was  inoculated  with  liver  tissue  from  the  aborted  calf  of  the 
cow  shown  in  Pig.  3;  the  others  with  laboratory  cultures  of  the  abortion  bacilli.  After 
six  weeks  they  were  killed  and  from  the  internal  organs  of  each  the  germs  of  abortion 
were  recovered. 

Is  there  any  other  way  of  telling  whether  a cow  is  going 
to  abort?  Shortly  before  abortion  occurs  certain  symptoms 
similar  to  those  preceding  normal  parturition  may  be  observed. 
They  are  not  entirely  reliable  for  even  after  showing  these 
symptoms  the  affected  cow  may  have  sufficient  resistive  power 
to  overcome  the  effects  of  the  germs  and  deliver  a full-term  calf. 

Are  the  lesions  produced  by  abortion  infection  character- 
istic enough  to  aid  in  making  a diagnosis?  The  fetal  mem- 
branes in  many  cases  Show  a brownish  or  yellowish  pus-like 
material  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  external  membrane  and  a 
necrotic  or  rotted  appearance  of  many  of  the  cotyledons.  Sub- 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


21 


sequently  a uterine  discharge  is  likely  to  occur,  more  especially 
if  the  membranes  fail  to  come  away  promptly. 

Does  a retained  afterbirth  always  indicate  the  abortion  dis- 
ease? It  is  apparent  that  retention  of  the  afterbirth  is  a fre- 
quent result  of  abortion  infection.  However,  there  are  other 
causes  for  this  condition;  therefore,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  a 
certain  sign  of  abortion  in  every  case. 

How  may  it  be  shown  that  the  blood  tests  indicate  the 
progress  of  abortion  in  a herd?  The  figures  in  Table  I show 
the  condition  of  a herd  over  a period  of  five  years.  It  should 
be  stated  that  while  every  reacting  cow  did  not  abort  in  the 
year  she  first  showed  a reaction,  most  of  them  had  aborted  or 
did  abort  eventually.  On  the  other  hand,  several  that  never 
reacted  aborted,  which  indicates  that  the  tests  are  not  100  per 
cent  accurate. 


Table  I. — Progress  of  Abortion  in  One  Herd  as  Shown  by  Repeated 

Blood  Tests 


Year 

Number  of 
reactors 

Number  of 
non-reactors 

Total 

number 

Per  cent  of 
reactors 

1913..... 

8 

26 

34 

23.5 

1914 ..... 

11 

46 

57 

19.3 

1915 

22 

34 

56 

39.3 

1916 

23 

34 

57 

40.4 

1917 

18 

37 

55 

32.8 

What  percentage  of  the  cows  and  heifers  in  infected  herds 
react  to  the  blood  tests?  About  36  per  cent  of  all  cows  in 
herds  where  the  disease  is  known  to  exist  respond  to  the  blood 
tests.  This  figure  is  based  on  tests  carried  out  at  this  Sta- 
tion on  more  than  6,000  head  of  cattle. 

How  do  calves  from  reacting  cows  respond  to  the  blood 
tests?  New-born  calves  almost  always  give  the  same  blood 
reaction  as  their  mothers.  As  they  get  older  those  that  have 
reacted  gradually  become  non-reactors.  When  they  reach 
breeding  age  most  of  them  give  a negative  reaction.  Later  in 
life  there  is  no  appreciable  difference  in  the  proportion  of 
abortion  in  daughters  of  positive  and  negative  reacting  cows. 
This  fact  tends  to  disprove  the  statement  that  the  calves  of 


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infected  cows  harbor  a latent  infection  which  ‘ ‘ lights  up  ’ ’ when 
the  animals  become  pregnant  and  frequently  results  in  abortion. 

How  do  calves  fed  on  milk  containing  the  abortion  germs 
react?  At  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  calves  were  fed 
milk  containing  the  abortion  germs.  After  varying  lengths  of 
time  their  blood  was  tested,  but  very  rarely  was  a calf  found 
that  gave  a reaction.  At  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  calves  that  did  react  wThen  young  failed  to  do  so 
after  a few  weeks.  These  experiments  would  indicate  that  the 
germs  do  not  usually  stay  in  the  bodies  of  calves  for  any  length 
of  time. 

Treatment  for  Abortion,  Retained  Afterbirth, 
and  Sterility 

Will  a cow  recover  from  the  abortion  disease  without  treat- 
ment? There  is  a prevailing  belief  that  by  letting  the  dis- 
ease run  its  course  it  will  die  out  without  treatment.  This  be- 
lief is  based  upon  the  assumption  that  the  cattle  will  develop 
immunity.  While  it  is  true  that  some  cows  do  recover  of  their 
own  accord,  it  is  well  known  that  the  majority  not  given  treat- 
ment are  left  more  or  less  impaired.  If  the  system  of  manage- 
ment described  here  is  followed,  the  results  will  be  far  better 
than  if  nothing  is  done  to  combat  the  disease. 

Can  the  abortion  disease  be  cured?  It  seems  reasonable  to 
believe  that  animals  affected  with  the  abortion  disease  can  be 
cured,  for  experience  teaches  that  animals  affected  with  many 
other  infectious  diseases  have  been  cured.  Moreover,  it  has 
been  shown  that  when  the  uterus  of  an  aborting  cow  is  given 
a chance  to  heal,  all  disease-producing  germs  are  eliminated 
from  it  in  a relatively  short  time. 

How  should  an  aborting  cow  be  managed?  Immediately  af- 
ter a cow  aborts,  and  before,  if  symptoms  of  abortion  are  evi- 
dent, she  should  be  removed  from  the  herd  to  a specially  pre- 
pared stall  for  observation  and  treatment.  This  may  also  be 
said  of  cows  with  retained  afterbirth  and  a vaginal  discharge. 
The  fetal  calf,  afterbirth,  and  contaminated  litter  must  be  dis- 
posed of  at  once  in  a sanitary  manner.  The  place  where  the 
cow  stood  should  then  be  well  saturated  with  a reliable  dis- 
infectant prepared  according  to  the  directions  of  the  manu- 
facturer. The  cow’s  rump,  tail,  vulva,  and  thighs  should  re- 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


23 


ceive  a daily  thorough  scrubbing  with  a warm  disinfectant  solu- 
tion while  there  is  any  vaginal  discharge  noticeable.  The 
vagina  should  be  douched  at  once  with  warm  one  per  cent  salt 
solution. 

How  is  the  one  per  cent  salt  solution  prepared?  Two  level 
tablespoons  of  common  table  salt  are  dissolved  in  one  gal- 
lon of  freshly  boiled,  blood-warm  water.  This  is  a sufficient 
quantity  for  one  treatment. 

If  the  afterbirth  is  retained,  what  should  be  done?  A com- 
petent veterinarian  should  be  called  to  determine  whether  the 
afterbirth  should  be  removed  at  once.  Intelligent,  persistent 
treatment  along  the  lines  to  be  described  is  necessary  in  these 
cases  if  affected  cows  are  expected  to  recover.  Most  cases  of 
garget,  blood  poisoning,  and  subsequent  sterility  can  be  traced 
to  failure  to  remove  retained  afterbirths  at  the  proper  time. 

When  should  a retained  afterbirth  be  removed?  Normally 
the  afterbirth  loosens  and  drops  of  its  own  accord  within  a 
couple  of  hours.  If  it  does  not,  there  is  no  cause  for  imme- 
diate worry.  It  is  impossible  in  the  majority  of  cases  to  re- 
move these  membranes  completely  within  the  first  48  hours  on 
account  of  their  close  union  with  the  cotyledons  or  “ buttons.’ ’ 
The  best  time  to  attempt  removal  is  between  the  48th  and  84th 
hours.  At  this  time  the  ends  of  the  uterine  horns  are  more 
easily  reached,  the  membranes  can  be  separated  from  the 
cotyledons  with  greater  facility,  and  will  come  away  without 
tearing  into  shreds.  In  all  cases  where  the  placenta  loosens 
earlier,  it  should  be  removed  promptly,  but  force  should  never 
be  used  to  remove  a placenta,  as  the  germs  of  abortion  have 
already  caused  some  damage  and  intensified  the  susceptibility 
of  the  cow  to  the  other  forms  of  infection  which  are  always 
present  awaiting  a favorable  opportunity  for  attacking  the 
womb. 

How  should  a retained  placenta  be  removed?  Both  skill  and 
judgment  are  needed  by  the  veterinarian  in  removing  a re- 
tained afterbirth.  Several  gallons  of  the  warm  one  per  cent 
salt  solution  already  described  should  be  injected  into  the 
womb  by  means  of  a uterine  catheter  or  a soft  rubber  tube,  to 
one  end  of  which  a funnel  is  attached.  A double  layer  of  clean 
muslin  should  be  placed  over  the  funnel  to  prevent  the  passage 
of  dust  and  dirt.  By  attaching  a pump  instead  of  a funnel  to 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


the  hose,  the  fluid  can  be  forced  further  into  the  uterus,  which 
is  an  advantage.  Some  veterinarians  prefer  a weak  antiseptic 
solution,  especially  when  the  membranes  are  putrid.  For  this 
purpose  a 0.5  per  cent  solution  of  sodium  hypochlorite  has  been 
recommended.  This  will  dissolve  necrotic  tissue,  counteract 
foul  odors,  and  allay  inflammation  by  destroying  infection.  If 
an  antiseptic  is  used,  it  should  always  be  followed  with  the  salt 
solution  to  prevent  subsequent  irritation  and  consequent  strain- 


FIG>.  5.— COW  RECOVERED1  FROM  ABORTION  DISEASE 

This  cow  aborted  in  February  and  December  of  the  year  1916,  but  with  treatment 
recovered  and  has  since  dropped  a normal,  full-term  calf  and  is  now  in  first-class  con- 
dition. At  present  she  is  the  largest  producer  in  a purebred  herd  consisting  of  45  head. 

ing.  The  uterus  should  always  be  thoroughly  drained  so  as  to 
leave  only  the  minimum  amount  of  fluid.  It  is  almost  impos- 
sible, however,  to  drain  out  every  drop,  but  with  the  aid  of  cot- 
ton swabs  practically  all  fluid  can  be  removed. 

If  the  afterbirth  is  not  easily  detachable,  what  should  be 
done?  The  uterine  cavity  should  be  douched  with  several 
gallons  of  blood-warm  salt  solution  each  morning  and  evening 
until  the  membranes  loosen  and  come  away.  The  douching 
not  only  should  be  continued  twice  daily  until  every  shred  of 
tissue  has  been  washed  away,  but  also  every  other  day  there- 
after until  the  cow  comes  in  heat ; otherwise  there  is  danger  of 
her  becoming  sterile.  Moreover,  this  is  the  most  successful 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


25 


way  to  stimulate  early  esturation  (heat),  to  insure  prompt 
conception,  and  to  prevent  subsequent  abortions. 

What  is  meant  by  vaginal  douching  and  when  should  it  be 
done?  By  the  term  “vaginal  douching”  is  meant  the  flush- 
ing of  the  vagina.  It  is  indicated  after  the  mouth  of  the  uterus 
has  contracted  so  that  the  tube  for  the  douche  cannot  be  intro- 
duced and  while  there  is  a discharge.  A careful  stable  attend- 
ant is  capable  of  giving  it  if  he  has  been  properly  instructed. 

How  should  an  infected  bull  be  managed?  It  is  a good 
sanitary  measure  to  irrigate  the  bull’s  sheath  before  and  after 
service  according  to  the  directions  described  under  the  section 
entitled  “Preventive  and  Control  Measures.”  This  certainly 
will  help  to  keep  the  bull  from  transmitting  the  organisms 
that  cause  the  secondary  infections. 

When  should  a cow  that  has  aborted  be  bred?  A cow 
should  be  bred  the  first  time  she  comes  in  heat  after  all  evi- 
dences of  vaginal  discharge  have  disappeared.  Obviously,  the 
length  of  time  that  should  elapse  before  breeding  a cow  that 
has  aborted  would  vary  with  the  individual’s  response  to  treat- 
ment and  her  ability  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  abortion. 
Experience  has  shown  that  the  earlier  the  cow  is  bred,  the 
more  likely  she  is  to  conceive. 

Is  it  profitable  to  treat  all  cows  which  have  aborted  or  show 
signs  of  harboring  infection?  Valuable  breeding  animals  that 
fall  in  this  class  will  certainly  prove  to  be  more  profitable  than 
non-inf ected  animals  that  have  not  demonstrated  their  utility  or 
developed  any  immunity.  One  reason  for  this  statement  was 
given  in  the  answer  to  the  question  about  the  development  of 
immunity ; another  reason  is  because  experience  has  shown  that 
if  such  animals  are  given  proper  treatment  before  and  after  con- 
ception occurs,  they  are  quite  likely  to  conceive  normally  and 
deliver  healthy  progeny. 

What  is  the  so-called  “serum  treatment”  for  abortion? 

The  term  “serum”  is  used  very  loosely  by  both  veterinarians 
and  farmers.  By  some  is  meant  any  fluid  or  fake  remedy  used 
for  the  control  of  abortion.  Others  restrict  the  use  of  the  term 
to  biologic  products  of  different  kinds.  It  is  properly  applied 
only  to  an  anti-abortion  serum  that  contains  specific  antibodies 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


against  abortion  bacilli.  Such  a serum  confers  a passive  immu- 
nity lasting  only  one  or  two  months,  so  is  not  employed  to  any 
extent. 

Are  carbolic  acid,  methylene  blue,  and  other  chemical  agents 
useful?  Repeated  trials  of  carbolic  acid  given  by  the  mouth 
and  injected  under  the  skin  have  failed  to  support  the  claims 
made  for  it  as  a preventive  or  curative  remedy.  Nothing  favor- 
able can  be  said  of  methylene  blue,  which  has  so  little  germi- 
cidal action  on  the  abortion  germs  that  when  they  were  im- 
mersed in  a 1 :4000  solution  for  three  days  they  still  retained 
vitality.  Practically  all  veterinarians  with  experience  regard 
most  proprietary  preparations  advertised  for  the  prevention 
and  cure  of  abortion  as  useless  or  worse  than  useless. 

Can  sterility  be  treated  successfully?  Many  cases  respond 
surprisingly  well  to  proper  treatment.  However,  if  no  more 
than  50  per  cent  of  those  that  are  treated  eventually  become 
breeders,  the  expense  is  fully  justified  in  the  case  of  cows 
whose  progeny  have  especial  value.  It  is  not  profitable  to  ex- 
pend much  time  and  money  on  the  ordinary  grade  cow  or  even 
the  purebred  cow  that  has  failed  to  make  more  than  an  av- 
erage record. 

How  can  one  determine  whether  a given  cow  would  be  likely 
to  respond  to  treatment  for  sterility?  A careful,  intelligent 
examination  of  the  internal  genital  organs  by  a competent  vet- 
erinarian should  reveal  the  exact  nature  of  the  diseased  con- 
dition. Then,  and  then  only,  is  he  in  a position  to  state 
whether  it  would  be  advisable  to  attempt  a course  of  treat- 
ment or  whether  it  would  be  best  to  send  the  animal  to  the 
butcher  as  incurable.  Not  only  is  the  knowledge  possessed  by 
a veterinarian  needed  in  a case  of  this  kind,  but  also  the  prop- 
er instruments  and  skill  in  their  manipulation.  Moreover, 
even  if  it  seems  probable  that  treatment  would  be  successful, 
the  owner  must  determine  whether  the  cow  is  valuable  enough 
to  warrant  the  cost. 

When  an  accumulation  of  pus  in  the  womb  is  found  to  be 
the  cause  of  sterility,  what  can  be  done?  The  abnormal  con- 
tents are  removed  by  means  of  a special  tube  or  catheter. 
Then  about  two  gallons  of  a one  per  cent  Lugol’s  solution  are 
introduced  to  cleanse  the  womb.  After  10  to  15  minutes  this 
fluid  is  drawn  off  and  the  womb  is  irrigated  with  the  warm 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


27 


salt  solution.  By  massaging  the  womb  through  the  walls  of 
the  rectum  the  fluid  that  has  a tendency  to  collect  on  account 
of  uterine  inertia  can  be  removed.  It  is  best  to  repeat  this 
treatment  several  days  in  succession. 

How  is  standard  Lugol’s  solution  prepared?  Five  grams 
of  iodine  crystals  and  ten  grams  of  potassium  iodide  are  dis- 
solved in  100  grams  of  water.  This  makes  a transparent 
liquid  of  a deep  brown  color  having  an  odor  of  iodine.  It 
should  be  kept  in  a glass-stoppered  bottle,  protected  from 
light,  for  making  up  the  diluted  solution  advised  above  for 
uterine  douching.  The  latter  is  prepared  by  mixing  1 part 
of  the  standard  Lugol’s  solution  with  400  parts  of  boiled  wa- 
ter. Lugol’s  solution  may  be  purchased  from  any  druggist, 
if  it  is  not  convenient  to  prepare  it  at  home. 

What  if  cysts  in  the  ovaries  are  determined  to  be  the  cause 
of  sterility?  In  such  a case  the  ovarian  cysts  should  be  rup- 
tured by  manipulation  through  the  rectal  walls.  This  is  not 
an  easy  operation  to  perform,  but  an  experienced  veterinar- 
ian can  accomplish  it.  When  successful,  it  restores  the  func- 
tions of  the  cow’s  ovaries  and  results  in  her  becoming  a 
breeder. 

If  the  sterile  cow  is  pronounced  incurable,  or  is  of  little 
value,  what  then?  She  should  be  sold  at  the  first  opportun- 
ity to  the  butcher.  Under  no  circumstances  should  she  be 
given  service  by  the  herd  bull,  as  he  might  be  a means  of 
transferring  the  germs  that  were  responsible  for  the  trouble 
to  other  cows  subsequently  served. 

Development  of  Immunity 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  “immunity”?  The  term  “im- 
munity,” as  it  is  commonly  used,  conveys  the  idea  of  protec- 
tion against  certain  diseases  of  microbial  origin.  Immunity 
may  be  the  result  of  a natural  attack  of  disease  or  of  pur- 
posely infecting  the  animal  with  the  living,  disease-producing 
germs.  The  immune  animal  may  or  may  not  harbor  the 
germs  in  its  body,  but  when  the  germs  are  present  they  are 
unable  to  produce  damage. 

What  is  understood  by  immunity  to  abortion?  If  a cow  is 

immune  to  abortion  she  has  the  ability  to  resist  the  abortion 
germs.  In  the  case  of  abortion  immunity  the  protection  is 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


sufficient  to  prevent  the  most  characteristic  symptoms  of  the 
disease,  viz.,  abortion  of  the  fetus,  retention  of  the  placenta, 
and  sterility.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  no  abor- 
tion germs  exist  in  her  body  or  that  she  is  incapable  of  trans- 
mitting them  to  other  animals.  It  implies  the  presence  of 
large  amounts  of  protective  substances  (antibodies)  which 
destroy  or  check  the  growth  of  the  abortion  germs. 


FIG.  6.— AN  EXAMPLE  OF  GOOD  MANAGEMENT 

For  four  years  this  cow  has  been  a member  of  a herd  managed  according  to  the  meth- 
ods advised  in  this  bulletin.  During  this  time  she  has  not  aborted  or  reacted  to  the 
blood  tests,  which  is  also  true  of  the  entire  herd  of  18  head. 

How  can  it  be  shown  that  cows  may  become  immune?  It 

is  a matter  of  common  observation  that  cows  do  not  continue 
to  abort  year  after  year,  but  eventually  recover  from  the  in- 
fection and  bear  healthy  calves.  About  80  per  cent  abort  once, 
15  per  cent  twice,  and  4 per  cent  three  times.  Presumably 
the  percentages  for  the  latter  two  groups  would  be  higher 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  many  owners  dispose  of  aborting 
cows  without  giving  them  a chance  to  conceive  again.  How- 
ever, this  would  tend  to  prove  that  protection  against  subse- 
quent abortions  in  a certain  proportion  of  cows  is  afforded 
by  one  infection  that  was  sufficiently  active  to  produce  abor- 
tion. 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


29 


Why  do  some  herds  possess  more  resistance  than  others? 
With  the  abortion  disease,  as  with  all  other  infectious  dis- 
eases, there  is  naturally  a marked  difference  in  the  resistive 
ability  to  disease  in  different  herds.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
not  always  clear.  In  some  cases  it  seems  to  be  due  to  an  in- 
herent or  natural  protection,  t'he  origin  of  which  cannot  be 
determined.  In  other  cases  it  may  be  the  care  given  the 
cattle  and  the  means  used  to  combat  the  disease.  Again,  the 
resistance  may  be  more  apparent  than  real,  as  would  be  the 
case  if  the  herd  contained  a relatively  large  proportion  of 
heifers,  which  are  more  liable  to  abort  than  are  mature  cows. 

Why  do  all  the  cows  in  one  herd  suddenly  stop  aborting, 
while  in  another  herd  the  cows  continue  to  abort  year  after 
year?  In  the  first  herd  it  would  be  due  to  an  infection  with 
abortion  germs  of  relatively  low  virulence,  or  to  a resistance 
on  the  part  of  the  cows  somewhat  higher  than  that  possessed 
by  the  general  run  of  cattle.  In  the  second  herd  just  the  op- 
posite conditions  would  exist.  This  explanation  seems  both 
logical  and  in  accord  with  well-known  facts  concerning  other 
germ  diseases. 

If  a heifer  aborts  once,  is  she  likely  to  abort  in  the  next 
gestation  period?  If  a heifer  aborts  her  first  calf  there  is  a 
greater  probability  that  she  will  abort  during  the  second  ges- 
tation period  than  a mature  cow.  This  statement  is  based  on 
carefully  kept  herd  records.  For  example,  of  25  heifers 
which  aborted  their  first  calves,  14  (56  per  cent)  aborted  in 
the  next  season.  Some  heifers  derive  enough  immunity  to 
tide  them  over  one  or  two  gestation  periods,  but  abort  again 
in  a future  period. 

Why  do  not  all  cows  after  aborting  once  become  immune? 

Possibly  because  some  of  them  did  not  get  a large  enough 
dose  of  the  infective  material  to  render  them  sufficiently  re- 
sistant. In  other  cases  it  may  be  that  the  body  had  not  time 
in  which  to  produce  immunity,  or  that  some  animals  are  not 
so  immunizable  as  others. 

What  methods  of  immunization  are  available?  There  are 
two  methods  employed  for  conferring  immunity  against  abor- 
tion. They  are:  (1)  the  injection  of  live  abortion  germs; 

(2)  the  injection  of  dead  abortion  germs.  A preparation  of 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


the  former  is  properly  termed  a “vaccine;”  of  the  latter  a 
* 1 bacterin.  ’ ’ 

Why  is  the  use  of  live  germs  urged  by  careful  investigators? 

Because  it  is  requisite,  for  the  successful  vaccination  of  ani- 
mals against  abortion,  to  produce  a mild  attack  of  the  disease. 
This  results  in  the  production  in  the  body  of  certain  defensive 
substances,  known  as  antibodies,  which  are  capable  of  pre- 
venting any  abortion  germs  that  may  subsequently  gain  en- 
trance from  producing  the  disease  in  t'he  natural  way. 

By  whom  and  on  what  grounds  is  the  use  of  the  dead  germs 
urged?  Many  commercial  firms  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  biologic  products  have  flooded  the  market  with 
“abortion  bacterins.”  They  have  been  the  leaders  in  advis- 
ing veterinarians  and  farmers  to  employ  these  products,  some 
having  gone  so  far  as  to  guarantee  certain  results. 

What  results  have  been  obtained  in  herds  treated  with  both 
the  live  and  the  dead  bacilli?  Veterinary  investigators  for 
the  Board  of  Agriculture  of  England  have  given  these  methods 
a thorough  trial  in  herds  where  severe  losses  had  occurred.  A 
summary  of  their  results  follows : 


Table  II. — Results  of  Immunizing  Cattle  Against  Abortion 


Total 
no.  of 
animals 

Less  those 
which  died, 
were  barren, 
or  were 
sold 

Number 

aborted 

Per 

cent 

Number 

calved 

correctly 

Per 

cent 

Immunized  with  live 
bacilli 

594 

594-101=493 

32 

6.5 

461 

93.5 

Controls  not  immunized. 

472 

472-40=432 

101 

23.4 

331 

76.6 

Immunized  with  dead 
bacilli 

146 

146-36=110 

23 

21.0 

87 

79.0 

What  do  the  results  in  the  foregoing  table  indicate?  They 

show  (1)  that  immunization  with  live  abortion  bacilli  (vac- 
cination) resulted  in  conferring  immunity  on  93.5  per  cent  of 
the  cattle  treated  in  herds  where  over  30  per  cent  of  them 
aborted  before  the  experiments  began;  (2)  that  over  23  per 
cent  of  the  untreated  controls  aborted;  (3)  that  treatment 
with  the  dead  bacilli  conferred  little  if  any  immunity  for  the 
percentage  of  abortions  in  this  group  was  practically  the 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


31 


same  as  in  the  group  left  as  controls;  (4)  that  although  the 
treatment  with  “abortion  bacterins,,  causes  little  or  no  harm, 
it  does  not  seem  materially  to  influence  the  disease;  (5)  that 
the  use  of  the  live  bacilli  has  great  promise. 

What  are  the  disadvantages  of  employing  the  live  bacilli? 
The  disadvantages  are:  (1)  rapid  deterioration  of  the  vac- 

cine; (2)  slow  development  of  immunity;  (3)  temporary  dis- 
comfort to  the  animal;  (4)  danger  of  introducing  the  infec- 
tion. 

How  should  abortion  vaccine  be  administered?  The  method 
that  has  proved  most  satisfactory  is  the  hypodermic  or  sub- 
cutaneous injection  of  the  vaccine.  Cattle  at  the  Station  vac- 
cinated experimentally  by  injecting  the  vaccine  into  the  blood 
aborted.  The  vaccine  should  be  injected  with  a recently  steril- 
ized hypodermic  syringe  at  any  convenient  place,  preferably 
under  the  skin  of  the  neck  or  just  back  of  the  shoulder.  The 
skin  over  the  point  of  injection  should  first  be  cleansed  with  a 
disinfectant. 

What  is  the  dose  of  this  vaccine?  A large  dose  gives  the 
best  results.  At  the  Station  30  c.  c.  of  a heavy  suspension  of 
the  live  abortion  bacilli  is  injected.  This  is  about  equal  to 
the  amount  of  growth  that  develops  on  the  surface  of  hard 
media  2 by  6 inches  in  area. 

How  long  does  the  immunity  produced  by  injecting  live 
germs  last?  The  length  of  time  a cow  is  rendered  immune 
varies  with  the  individual  animal.  Experiments  conducted  at 
the  Wisconsin  Station  prove  that  in  cases  treated  with  living 
germs  the  protection  was  effective  for  two  years,  throughout 
two  gestation  periods,  and  probably  for  a longer  time.  The 
English  Commission  state  that  it  is  necessary  to  continue  the 
inoculations  for  a time  on  the  infected  animals  after  abortions 
cease  to  occur.  Any  animals  brought  from  other  herds  should 
be  inoculated  at  the  first  opportunity.  In  England  very  few 
of  the  animals  that  have  been  immunized  for  one  pregnancy 
have  aborted  subsequently ; therefore,  it  appears  that  if  an  an- 
imal is  immunized  for  two  pregnancies  there  is  very  little 
chance  of  her  aborting  afterwards.  It  is  important  for  the 
dairyman  to  know  that  the  use  of  live  abortion  bacilli  (con- 
tagious abortion  vaccine)  does  not  cure  or  eliminate  the  germs 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


from  the  treated  animal,  but  simply  puts  it  in  condition  more 
effectively  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the  germs. 

When  is  the  proper  time  to  vaccinate?  A vaccine  is  a prep- 
aration containing  the  living  germs  and  can  be  safely  used  only 
on  unbred  heifers  and  open  cows  at  least  two  months  before 
being  bred.  If  animals  are  treated  during  pregnancy  there 
is  danger  of  causing  abortion. 


FIG.  7.— AN  EXAMPLE  OF1  POOR  MANAGEMENT 

A member  of  a herd  in  which  little  effort  was  made  to  control  the  abortion  disease. 
She  has  aborted  twice  and  still  reacts  strongly  to  the  blood  tests.  Two-thirds  of  the 
cows  in  the  herd  have  the  disease. 

Is  this  method  of  treatment  recommended  for  general  use? 

The  results  given  above  are  highly  encouraging.  However, 
its  general  use  is  not  advised  until  more  evidence  is  gathered 
from  cattle  that  have  already  been  treated  in  Wisconsin.  The 
University  will  gladly  cooperate  with  reliable  breeders  who 
have  valuable  herds  that  they  wish  to  immunize.  Correspond- 
ence is  invited  with  owners  who  are  interested  in  this  propo- 
sition. Letters  should  be  addressed  to  the  Department  of 
Veterinary  Science,  College  of  Agriculture,  Madison. 

What  effect  does  injecting  the  live  or  dead  abortion  germs 
have  on  the  blood  test  for  abortion?  Such  injections  cause 
the  blood  of  the  treated  animals  to  react  to  the  tests.  In  the 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


33 


case  of  most  animals  it  has  been  found  that  the  blood  gradu- 
ally loses  its  reacting  property  unless  the  injections  are  re- 
peated from  time  to  time.  Blood  tests  on  herds  that  have 
been  treated  with  a vaccine  or  bacterin  are  helpful  in  deter- 
mining the  degree  of  immunity  that  the  animal  possesses. 

What  are  the  reasons  for  bulls  showing  a greater  resistance 
against  abortion  than  heifers  and  cows?  Bulls  appear  to 
have  a sexual  immunity  that  is  accountable  for  their  being 
less  susceptible.  This  appears  to  be  due  to  certain  anatomic 
and  physiologic  differences  in  their  sexual  organs  which  make 
these  less  favorable  places  for  the  growth  of  the  abortion 
germs  than  those  of  the  opposite  sex. 

Preventive  and  Control  Measures 

How  can  abortion  be  prevented  from  getting  a foothold  in 
a clean  herd?  Eternal  vigilance  by  the  cattle  owner  to  pre- 
vent the  introduction  of  infection  is  the  first  essential  to  suc- 
cess in  any  attempt  to  keep  a herd  free  from  abortion.  This 
implies  the  maintenance  of  a sanitary  stable  and  provision  for 
an  adequate  supply  of  suitable  feed.  In  order  to  detect  cases 
of  abortion  infection  before  the  animals  actually  abort,  the 
herd  should  be  tested  once  or  twice  a year  and  all  reacting 
animals  removed  at  once.  When  it  is  desirable  to  purchase 
stock  to  build  up  the  herd,  preference  should  be  given  to 
calves  under  ten  months  of  age  as  they  are  less  apt  to  be  in- 
fected at  the  time  of  purchase  than  are  heifers  or  cows.  All 
cows  from  the  outside  must  be  required  to  pass  a blood  test 
before  being  turned  with  the  herd. 

What  can  be  done  to  control  abortion  after  it  breaks  out 
in  a herd?  The  following  procedure  is  recommended  in  han- 
dling a herd  of  cattle  in  which  abortion  infection  is  known  to 
exist:  (1)  daily  douching  with  the  salt  solution  of  all  cows  that 
have  a vaginal  discharge;  (2)  provision  for  a food  supply  that 
is  adequate  as  to  nutritive  and  mineral  content  and  free  from 
contamination;  (3)  complete  removal  of  retained  afterbirths 
with  subsequent  cleansing  of  the  womb  as  previously  de- 
scribed to  prevent  an  accumulation  of  pus  which  is  likely  to 
result  in  sterility;  (4)  disposal  of  aborted  fetuses  and  con- 
taminated bedding  by  burning  or  deep  burying,  and  disinfec- 
tion of  the  gutters  and  floor;  (5)  isolation  of  all  cows  known 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


to  be  infected  with  abortion;  (6)  when  possible,  treatment  of  all 
heifers  and  cows  about  two  months  before  breeding  with  a 
vaccine  composed  of  live  abortion  germs. 

Are  these  plans  successful?  The  Station  has  been  able  to 
prevent  and  control  contagious  abortion  in  both  non-infected 
and  infected  herds  when  the  appropriate  plan  was  conscien- 
tiously followed.  The  owners  praise  the  results  obtained  and 
feel  that  at  last  satisfactory  systems  of  managing  purebred 
herds  have  been  found.  It  should  be  understood,  however, 
that  although  excellent  results  have  been  secured  in  a few 
herds,  many  more  must  be  kept  under  the  conditions  specified 
before  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  these  plans  will  be  generally 
successful.  Dairymen  should  familiarize  themselves  with  the 
methods  of  procedure  so  that  they  can  put  one  plan  or  the 
other  into  operation  on  short  notice.  It  would  be  unreasonable 
even  to  hope  that  every  abortion  could  be  prevented,  but  there 
is  assurance  that  the  disease  may  be  effectively  controlled  if 
the  proper  plan  is  followed. 

What  are  the  most  important  factors  in  the  control  of  me- 
tritis, abortion,  and  sterility?  Experience  teaches  that 
thorough  cleansing  of  the  genital  tract  after  an  afterbirth  has 
been  retained  is  the  key  to  success  in  preventing  and  control- 
ling these  diseases  of  the  cow’s  generative  organs.  For  this 
purpose  a solution  of  common  salt  in  water,  prepared  and  in- 
troduced according  to  the  directions  given,  is  best.  This  so- 
lution is  preferable  to  a disinfectant  which  is  certain  to  cause 
irritation  and  straining  if  it  is  made  strong  enough  to  kill 
germs.  Another  factor  in  controlling  these  diseases  is  to  keep 
healthy  cows  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  discharges  of 
infected  cattle. 

May  the  herd  bull  be  allowed  to  serve  cows  from  other 
herds?  Not  unless  the  herds  are  known  to  be  free  from  the 
abortion  disease  and  are  being  maintained  under  the  system 
recommended  in  this  bulletin.  Even  then  the  bull’s  sheath 
should  be  flushed  out  before  and  after  each  service  with  the 
weak  Lugol’s  solution  that  has  been  recommended  for  the  irri- 
gation of  cows. 

What  is  the  best  method  of  irrigating  the  bull’s  sheath?  A 

soft  rubber  tube  attached  to  a funnel  or  regular  hospital  irri- 
gator is  greased  with  vaseline  and  gently  pushed  into  the 


Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered 


35 


sheath.  The  hand  is  used  to  compress  the  sheath  about  the 
tube  so  that  every  fold  in  the  former  may  come  in  contact  with 
the  fluid.  After  a minute  the  hand  is  released  to  permit  the 
fluid  to  escape;  then  the  process  is  repeated.  Lugol’s  solu- 
tion of  iodine  diluted  to  make  a 0.25  per  cent  solution  and  pre- 
pared according  to  the  directions  already  given  is  one  of  the 
best  antiseptics  for  this  purpose. 

Is  it  necessary  to  douche  or  irrigate  the  genital  organs  of 
healthy  animals  to  prevent  abortion?  Douching  of  healthy 
cattle  is  not  only  unnecessary  but  is  also  likely  to  be  harmful 
if  long  continued.  Furthermore,  unless  great  «care  is  used 
there  is  danger  of  disseminating  disease  by  the  rubber  tube  or 
syringe.  For  these  reasons,  it  is  not  advisable  to  irrigate 
healthy  cows,  heifers,  nnd  bulls. 

Is  it  advisable  to  change  bulls  to  prevent  further  trouble 
from  the  abortion  disease?  Many  farmers,  thinking  that  the 
abortion  disease  is  due  to  the  herd  bull,  have  disposed  of  him 
and  bought  another  only  to  find  that  the  trouble  continued  or 
became  more  severe.  From  the  facts  presented  elsewhere  in 
this  circular  about  the  bull’s  part  in  abortion,  it  is  clear  that 
by  getting  another  to  head  the  herd  the  problem  of  con- 
trolling the  abortion  disease  will  not  be  solved. 

Is  it  possible  to  eradicate  the  abortion  disease  by  selling  all 
cows  that  abort  and  buying  others?  This  would  depend  on 
the  extent  of  the  disease  in  the  home  herd  and  the  herd  from 
which  the  new  cattle  were  obtained.  Ordinarily  it  is  not  good 
policy  to  sell  cows  that  abort  as  this  depletes  the  herd  too  much. 
Furthermore,  if  the  aborting  cow  is  given  the  attention  advised, 
she  is  a more  valuable  member  of  the  herd  than  cows  from 
other  herds  about  which  little  or  nothing  is  known.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  only  one  cow  aborts  it  is  good  policy  to  dispose 
of  her  at  once  before  she  has  had  an  opportunity  to  infect  other 
members  of  the  herd. 

What  precautions  should  be  taken  before  bringing  cattle  in- 
to a herd  that  is  free  from  the  abortion  disease?  All  cattle 
that  are  to  be  placed  in  an  abortion-free  herd  should  be  quar- 
antined until  after  calving  and  required  to  pass  at  least  one 
blood  test.  Otherwise  there  is  danger  of  introducing  the  dis- 
ease. 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  296 


Should  every  animal  responding  to  the  blood  tests  be  sold? 

Reference  should  be  made  to  the  answers  to  questions  under  ] 
“Treatment  of  Affected  Cattle.’ ’ As  a general  proposition,  if 
only  a few  animals  react,  it  would  be  feasible  to  dispose  of  them, 
but  if  10  per  cent  or  more  of  the  herd  react  it  would  not  be 
good  policy. 

How  long  will  it  take  to  eradicate  the  abortion  disease  from 
a herd?  While  it  may  be  impossible  completely  to  eradicate 
the  abortion  disease  from  a herd  in  one  year  or  even  two,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  disease  can  be  controlled  and  the  herd 
made  profitable  if  the  directions  given  herein  are  followed  with 
intelligence  and  persistence. 

Would  it  be  safe  to  bring  a calf  from  an  infected  into  a 
clean  herd?  If  the  calf  has  been  fed  pasteurized  milk  for  a 
period  of  three  or  four  weeks  prior  to  moving,  or  has  been  on 
a ration  that  does  not  include  raw  milk  for  a like  period,  there 
is  little  chance  of  its  bringing  the  disease  into  a clean  herd. 
Otherwise,  it  should  be  kept  in  quarantine  at  its  new  home  for 
a month  before  being  permitted  to  mingle  with  the  other  stock. 

How  may  a stable  be  disinfected?  All  loose  litter  should  be 
removed  from  the  floor,  mangers,  and  watering  troughs.  Then 
the  entire  inside  of  the  stable,  including  the  ceiling,  should  be 
swept  and  scrubbed  to  remove  all  encrusted  material.  After- 
ward a reliable  commercial  coal  tar  disinfectant,  prepared 
strictly  according  to  the  manufacturer’s  directions  on  the  orig- 
inal package  is  to  be  applied.  Keep  in  mind  the  fact  that 
sunlight  and  air  are  effective  destroyers  of  germ  life  and  admit 
them  to  the  stable  at  every  opportunity.  Whitewashing  the 
interior  of  the  stable  is  also  helpful.  A sprinkling  of  air-slaked 
lime  over  the  floors  and  in  the  gutters  helps  to  keep  the  stable 
sweet  and  aids  in  disinfecting  it. 

Is  there  a law  against  selling  cattle  infected  with  abortion? 
There  is  no  law  that  prohibits  the  sale  of  abortion-infected  cat- 
tle for  slaughter.  If  such  cattle  are  sold  to  go  into  other  herds  | 
the  seller  should  inform  the  buyer  that  abortion  exists,  else  | 
he  may  be  held  for  damages  resulting  from  abortion  infection. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  297  September,  1918 

UHIYERSITY  OF  ILUHQIS  LIBRARY 

1 19! 

Hairless  Pigs 

The  Cause  and  Remedy 


E.  B.  HART  AND  H.  STEENBOCK 


PROPER  TREATMENT  PREVENTED  HAIRLESS  MALADY 

This  sow  had  previously  produced  a litter  of  dead  and  hairless  pigs.  (See 
Pig.  2)  She  was  again  fed  on  the  same  ration,— 33  parts  of  corn,  33  parts 
of  oats,  and  33  of  clover,— but  when  to  this  was  added  10  grams  of  potas- 
sium iodide  to  each  100  pounds  of  feed  she  produced  a normal  litter. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON. 


DIGEST 


An  increasing  number  of  hairless  pigs  is  born  annually  in  the  hog 
belt.  This  malady  has  caused  heavy  losses  in  several  states  and  has 
appeared  in  Wisconsin.  Page  3. 

Goiter  is  the  cause  of  the  hairless  pig  malady.  The  thyroid  gland 
is  enlarged  and  fails  to  work  properly.  The  enlarged  gland  is  not  so 
noticeable  in  the  sow  as  in  the  pigs.  It  does  not  affect  the  health  of 
the  sow,  but  does  interfere  with  her  powers  of  reproduction. 

Pages  3-6. 

A small  amount  of  iodine  in  the  feed  prevents  hairless  pigs.  Ten 

grams  of  potassium  iodide  in  100  pounds  of  feed  for  the  sow  prevents 
reouble.  Pages  6-8. 

It  is  impossible  to  tell  whether  or  not  a sow  has  goiter.  Where 
hairless  pigs  are  born  one  year  it  is  safe  to  use  the  iodine  remedy  the 
next  year.  The  malady  occurs  more  often  with  spring  pigs. 

Pages  7-9. 

A proper  ration  may  do  much  to  prevent  hairless  pigs.  Plenty  of 
roughage — alfalfa  and  clover  hay — helps.  The  Wisconsin  outbreak 
in  1918  was  probably  due  to  feeding  too  much  grain  and  too  little 
roughage.  Pages  9-10. 

Feed  a small  amount  of  potassiur  idide  and  increase  the  rough- 
age  for  the  breeding  stock  on  farm^  where  hairless  pigs  were  bom 
the  past  year.  Pages  10-11. 


Hairless  Pigs 

The  Cause  and  Remedy 

Every  spring  on  the  farms  of  Wisconsin  as  well  as  in  other 
sections  of  the  “hog  belt”  there  is  born  a considerable  number 
of  hairless  pigs.  Practically  every  county  where  swine  rais- 
ing is  developed  and  from  which  we  have  had  reports  has  had 
cases  of  this  malady.  It  occurs  in  the  northern  as  well  as  in 
the  southern  counties,  and  in  the  western  as  well  as  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  this  state. 

In  some  other  sections  of  our  country,  notably  in  Montana, 
the  losses  from  hairless  pigs  have  been  enormous.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  from  100,000  to  1,000,000  are  lost  annually  in  that 
state  alone  from  this  cause,  and  it  has  become  a serious  menace 
to  the  swine  industry  in  several  states  and  to  some  of  the 
swine  breeders  in  our  own  state. 

Hairless  pigs  are  of  normal  weight  and  size,  perhaps  a little 
above  normal  weight;  they  are  generally  carried  the  full  ges- 
tation period  and  often  four  to  seven  days  over  time.  When 
absolutely  hairless  and  bom  alive  they  may  live  a few  hours 
after  birth,  but  always  die  sooner  or  later.  They  are  charac- 
terized by  thick  pulpy  necks,  thick  skin,  no  squeal,  and  no 
vitality.  Where  perfectly  hairless  the  skin  is  smooth,  shiny, 
and  bald,  except  for  a few  hairs  around  the  eyes  and  nose. 
The  hoofs  of  hairless  pigs  are  thin-walled  and  undeveloped. 
In  the  same  litter  there  may  be  variations  from  pigs  with  full- 
haired coats  and  full  vigor  to  pigs  with  scanty-haired  coats 
and  little  vitality.  Those  with  some  hair  may  live  if  given 
special  attention  and  care. 

Pigs  in  this  condition  are  more  likely  to  be  bom  from  gilts 
than  from  old  sows.  They  are  more  likely  to  be  born  in  the 
spring  than  in  the  fall. 

Goiter  Is  the  Cause 

The  cause  of  this  malady  in  both  sow  and  young  pig  is  goiter, 
an  enlarged,  improperly  working  thyroid  gland.  The  thyroid 
gland,  at  the  center  and  base  of  the  throat  in  its  enlarged 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  297 


condition  accounts  for  the  thick  necks  of  the  little  pigs.  The 
sow  is  also  suffering  from  an  enlarged  thyroid,  but  this  cannot 
be  so  readily  observed  due  to  the  large,  fat,  fleshy  neck.  The 
goiter  in  the  sow  does  not  seriously  affect  her  health  and  it 
does  not  affect  her  use  for  meat,  but  unless  corrected  it  does 
interfere  with  her  breeding  functions.  The  thyroid  gland  of 
a normal  new-born  pig  is  about  the  size  of  a pea,  while  that 
of  a hairless  pig  is  the  size  of  a hickory  nut.  The  gland  in 


FIG.  1.— A GROUP  OF  HAIRLESS  PIGS 

Hairless  pigs  are  dead  pigs.  The  losses  from  the  production  of  hairless 
pigs  in  Wisconsin  have  been  considerable  and  most  of  them  can  be  avoided. 

a normal  sow  varies  in  size,  but  usually  is  not  larger  than  a 
walnut,  while  in  a sow  producing  hairless  pigs  it  is  the  size 
of  a man’s  fist. 

Studies  of  goiter  in  the  human  race  have  shown  that  when 
the  thyroid  gland  is  removed  or  its  function  interfered  with, 
as  in  goiter  or  in  cancer  of  the  thyroid,  the  hair  and  nails 
cease  to  develop  and  the  skin  of  the  face  and  neck  becomes 
thick  and  pulpy.  These  conditions  correspond  very  closely 
with  those  found  in  hairless  pigs. 

The  immediate  cause  of  goiter  in  the  human  race  is  not 
clearly  established  by  medical  science,  but  a cure  for  the  simple 
form  has  been  found  in  the  use  of  iodine.  It  is  surprising 
how  widely  prevalent  goiter  really  is.  It  is  estimated  that 


Hairless  Pigs,  The  Cause  and  Kemedy 


5 


85  per  cent  of  the  dogs  on  the  streets  of  Chicago  show  more 
or  less  enlargement  of  the  thyroid;  and  goiter  or ‘“big  neck” 
is  being  recognized  more  frequently  in  calves,  lambs  and  colts. 
In  the  states  of  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Montana  consider- 
able losses  by  big  neck  in  colts,  lambs,  and  calves  have  been 
reported  and  cases  among  lambs  have  been  reported  in  our  own 
state.  At  one  time  the  sheep-raising  industry  of  Michigan 
was  in  danger,  because  of  goiter  in  lambs.  Before  the  dis- 


Note  the  thick  necks  indicating  a goitrous  condition.  The  mother  of  these 
pigs  had  been  started  on  a grain  ration — high  protein  and  no  roughage.  On 
this  ration  she  did  not  thrive  well  and  was  changed  to  one  consisting  of  15 
parts  of  alfalfa,  25  of  corn,  25  of  oats,  25  of  middlings,  and  10  of  oil  meal, 
and  kept  under  strict  confinement.  She  had  produced  two  litters  of  hair- 
less pigs  on  this  ration  before  being  changed  to  the  ration  of  33  parts  of 
clover,  33  of  corn  and  33  of  oats  on  which  she  again  produced  hairless  pigs. 

The  picture  on  the  cover  shows  how  the  trouble  was  corrected  in  this  same 
sow  by  the  use  of  potassium  iodide. 

covery  of  salt  deposits  around  the  Great  Lakes  its  future  seem- 
ed hopeless,  but  with  the  development  of  the  salt  industry  and 
the  use  of  salt  by  sheep  growers  goiter  rapidly  decreased.  The 
salt  contained  appreciable  quantities  of  iodine.  At  present 
the  refined  rock  salts  coming  from  Michigan,  as  well  as  from 
other  parts  of  the  United  States,  do  not  contain  enough  iodine 
to  make  their  use  a guarantee  of  goiter  prevention. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  297 


Marine,  a few  years  ago,  found  goiter  prevalent  among  brook 
trout  artificially  reared  in  hatcheries,  while  those  in  the  free 
runs  outside  of  the  ponds  did  not  have  this  trouble.  He  was 
able  to  prevent  the  disease  in  several  hatcheries  by  the  use  of 
very  small  amounts  of  tincture  of  iodine  added  to  the  water. 


Use  of  Iodine  Prevents  Hairless  Condition 

The  fact  that  hairless  pigs  are  the  product  of  a mother  suf- 
fering from  goiter  suggested  the  possibility  of  curing  and 


FIG.  3.— A MIXED  LITTER  OF  HAIRED  AND  HAIRLESS  FIGS 

A sow  may  produce  a litter  in  which  there  are  both  haired  and  hairless 
pigs.  The  hairless  ones  are  dead,  while  those  with  hair  will  show  life  and 
may  be  raised.  This  sow  grew  up  on  a ration  of  30  parts  of  corn,  30  of 
oats,  30  of  middlings,  8 of  oil  meal  and  1 of  tankage.  She  was  under  strictly 
confined  conditions,  but  appeared  normal  in  every  other  respect,  excepting 
in  reproduction. 


controlling  this  malady  with  iodine.  The  thyroid  gland  forms 
a chemical  substance  containing  iodine  which  it  circulates 
through  the  blood  stream.  This  compound  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  proper  development  of  an  animal.  When 
conditions  arise  requiring  more  of  this  compound,  and  the 
iodine  supply  in  the  food  is  not  increased,  the  gland  enlarges 
to  let  more  blood  pass  through  it  in  a given  time.  It  is,  there- 
fore, either  a failure  to  absorb  the  iodine  from  the  feed  or  a 
failure  of  the  thyroid  gland  to  absorb  the  iodine  that  is  in  the 
blood  that  causes  goiter. 


Hairless  Pigs,  The  Cause  and  Remedy 


7 


The  thyroid  gland  of  the  hairless  pig  contains  no  iodine;  a 
normal  thyroid  in  its  dried  state  contains  about  .2  per  cent 
of  iodine.  The  iodine  supply  in  our  feeding  materials  is  com- 
paratively low  and  this  is  true  for  all  feeding  materials.  How- 
ever, in  most  instances  there  is  enough  iodine  present  in  our 
feeds  when  it  is  properly  assimilated ; but  under  certain  con- 


FIG.  4.— ANOTHER  CORRECTION  WITH  POTASSIUM  IODIDE 

The  same  sow  as  shown  in  Figure  3 and  on  the  same  ration,  but  to  which 
was  added  10  grams  of  potassium  iodide  to  each  100  pounds  of  feed.  All 
the  young  were  born  alive  and  in  normal  condition. 

ditions  of  life,  the  exact  analysis  of  which  is  not  possible  in 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  our  farm  animals  are  un- 
able to  absorb  sufficient  amounts  of  iodine. 

How  to  Use  Iodine 

We  have  successfully  corrected  the  hairless  pig  trouble  by 
giving  the  sow  during  her  entire  gestation  period  10  grams 
(approximately  % of  an  ounce)  of  potassium  iodide  per  100 
pounds  of  feed.  This  material  can  be  procured  from  almost 
any  drug  store.  It  should  be  powdered  to  a meal  as  fine  as 
flour,  and  then  mixed  with  100  pounds  of  feed. 

There  is  no  way,  so  far  as  we  know,  of  telling  beforehand 
whether  or  not  a sow  has  goiter.  But  where  hairless  pigs 
have  occurred  on  the  farm  it  would  be  good  insurance  against 
their  reoccurrence  to  use  potassium  iodide.  At  the  present 
prices  for  this  chemical  a sow  can  be  carried  through  the  en- 
tire gestation  period  for  about  25  cents.  Special  quack 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  297 


remedies  should  be  avoided;  nothing  but  iodine  will  do 
the  work  and  the  products  of  venders  of  special  drugs  should 
be  avoided.  This  malady  is  not  abortion,  but  is  due  to  the 
poor  working  of  the  thyroid  gland. 

Tests  of  this  treatment  at  the  Montana  Experiment  Station 
have  shown  that  about  half  of  the  amount  of  potassium  iodide 
we  have  used,  when  fed  for  60  days,  will  prevent  hairless  pig 
production.  We  have  not  as  yet  had  an  opportunity  to  try 
the  smaller  dose,  but  would  recommend  that  from  5 to  10  grams 
of  potassium  iodide  (l^  to  % of  an  ounce)  per  100  pounds  of 
feed  be  used.  Do  not  use  more  as  it  would  be  unnecessary 
and  a waste  of  money.  It  had  better  be  fed  the  entire  gesta- 
tion period,  or  at  least  the  last  75  days  of  gestation,  until  fur- 
ther experiments  have  decided  whether  a shorter  period  of 
use  would  be  equally  efficient. 

Variations  in  the  Malady 

This  malady  is  subject  to  the  greatest  variations.  Four  sows 
in  the  same  pen  and  fed  the  same  ration  and  cared  for  in 
identically  the  same  way  may  give  the  following  results:  two 
will  come  through  with  sound,  normal  litters;  the  third  will 
give  a mixed  litter,  that  is,  some  with  a good  hair  coat  and 
some  with  scanty  hair  coat,  or  absolutely  hairless;  the  fourth 
will  give  all  hairless  pigs.  We  believe  these  results  are  prob- 
ably due  to  constitutional  differences  in  the  animals,  inherent 
factors  which  always  display  themselves  with  any  group  of 
animals.  A ration  that  is  near  the  border  line  of  deficiency 
in  iodine  and  at  the  same  time  is  slightly  out  of  balance  in 
some  other  respect  may  well  affect  some  individuals  more  than 
others. 

Again,  a farmer  may  lose  90  per  cent  of  his  spring  pigs  by 
this  malady  and  yet  that  same  breeding  stock  may  produce 
under  summer  conditions,  such  as  pasture  and  exercise,  good 
litters  in  the  fall.  It  is  such  conditions  as  summer  pasture 
and  exercise  that  are  important  factors  in  preventing  this  mal- 
ady without  the  use  of  potassium  iodide. 


Hairless  Pigs,  The  Cause  and  Remedy 


9 


Proper  Rearing  May  Prevent  Hairless  Pigs 

We  have  reared  a considerable  number  of  sows  on  rations 
made  partly  of  grains,  but  with  25  per  cent  of  alfalfa  in  the 
ration  and  under  these  conditions  have  never  had  a case  of  hair- 
less pigs.  They  were  even  confined  in  pens  while  on  these 
rations.  But  when  our  young  stock  was  started  at  weaning 


FIG.  5.— RAISING  THE  GILT  SO  AS  TO  HELP  IN  THE  PREVENTION 
OF  HAIRLESS  PIGS 

We  believe  that  hairless  pig  production  is  often  the  result  of  improper 
feeding  of  young  sows,  such  as  giving  them  too  high  protein  feeds  and  too 
little  roughage  in  the  ration.  This  sow  was  reared  on  a ration  of  75  parts 
of  corn  and  25  of  alfalfa.  While  the  sows  may  grow  at  a somewhat  slower 
rate  than  normal,  yet  the  litters  have  always  been  haired  and  strong  where 
sows  have  been  reared  on  rations  containing  15  to  25  per  cent  of  roughage. 


time  on  concentrates  such  as  grains  and  skimmilk,  and  little 
or  no  roughage  was  used  in  the  ration,  hairless  pigs  often  resul- 
ted ; and  there  was  just  as  much  iodine  in  one  ration  as  in 
the  other. 

Alfalfa  or  clover  hay  should  form  25  per  cent  of  the  ration. 
If  choice,  leafy  hay  is  fed  in  a rack,  sows  will  (usually)  eat 
this  proportion  of  hay.  However,  if  they  do  not  eat  enough 
of  the  uncut  hay  to  make  about  25  per  cent  of  the  ration,  the 
hay  may  be  cut  and  mixed  with  the  other  feed. 

An  extraordinary  outbreak  of  hairless  pigs  occurred  in  the 
spring  of  1917  in  areas  in  Montana  not  previously  affected. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  297 


There  had  been  a cold,  long  winter,  roughage  was  scarce,  and 
the  animals  were  wintered  mainly  on  grains.  In  the  spring  of 
1918,  after  a mild  winter,  with  practically  no  snow,  and  plenty 
of  hay,  there  were  almost  no  cases  of  hairless  pigs  in  the 
“unaffected’ ’ areas. 

In  Wisconsin,  the  spring  of  1918  saw  some  of  our  breeders 
experiencing  this  malady  for  the  first  time.  The  winter  had 
been  extremely  severe  and  roughages  were  scarce  among  those 
suffering  most.  Our  experience  indicates  that  the  liberal  use  of 
roughage  and  the  feeding  of  rations  not  excessively  high  in 
protein  are  by  far  the  safest  rules  to  follow  in  the  rearing  of 
gilts  for  breeding  purposes,  if  the  too  common  occur- 
rence of  hairless  pigs  is  to  be  prevented-  Farmers  should 
not  rely  wholly  on  grains  and  skimmilk  for  their  breeding  gilts. 
Introduce  25  per  cent  of  the  ration  as  cut  alfalfa  or  clover. 
This  gives  bulk  to  the  ration  and  insures  proper  elimination  of 
waste  through  the  intestines;  it  keeps  the  intestines  in  a 
healthy  condition  and  will  allow  the  absorption  of  sufficient 
amounts  of  iodine  naturally  present  in  the  feed  to  meet  the 
sow’s  needs  without  the  use  of  potassium  iodide.  Keep  the  ani- 
mals dry  and  provide  exercise.  Goiter  is  more  prevalent  in 
northern,  mountainous  districts  with  cold,  long,  damp  winters 
and  little  sunshine,  than  in  the  warm  climates  with  plenty  of 
sunshine  and  opportunity  for  exercise. 

The  suggested  method  of  rearing  breeding  swine  may  not 
always  prevent  goiter — some  cases  will  need  the  potassium 
iodide  treatment — but  we  believe  proper  “rearing  will  go  a 
long  way  toward  solving  a growing  difficulty  in  this  state. 
However,  if  you  had  hairless  pigs  in  the  spring  of  1918  it  will 
be  advisable  to  use  the  potassium  iodide  treatment  this  winter. 

Summary 

Goiter,  or  an  enlarged  thyroid  gland  the  function  of  which  is 
disturbed,  is  the  cause  of  hairless  pigs.  Both  sow  and  young  are 
afflicted  with  enlarged  glands. 

The  enlarged  glands  are  deficient  in  iodine,  which  is  essential 
to  the  proper  action  of  this  gland  and  the  production  of  normal 
young. 

Iodine,  supplied  the  female  breeding  stock  during  the  gesta- 
tion period,  will  prevent  this  trouble.  One-third  to  one-sixth 


Hairless  Pigs,  The  Cause  and  Remedy 


11 


of  an  ounce  of  potassium  iodide  to  each  100  pounds  of  feed  will 
prevent  hairless  pigs.  Do  not  use  more. 

Rearing  the  breeding  sows  with  plenty  (25  per  cent)  of  good 
roughage,  such  as  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  in  the  ration  and  not  an 
excessive  amount  of  protein  may  do  much  toward  preventing 
this  trouble  and  thus  avoid  the  necessity  for  using  the  potassium 
iodide  treatment  later. 


March,  1919 


Prune  the  Cherry 


Trees 


R.  H.  ROBERTS 


WELL  PRUNED'  TREES  MEAN  MORE  CHERRIES 

Wisconsin  cherry  orchards  are  already  profitable,  but  larger  and  surer  yields 
are  possible  when  the  trees  are  properly  pruned. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


/ 


Heavy  pruning  of  the  top  at  planting  is  one  of  the  elements  of 
success  in  securing  a good  growth  the  first  season.  Page  3. 

The  time  to  prune  seems  to  be  of  relatively  little  importance. 

Page  4. 

The  young  trees  need  careful  pruning  to  secure  strong  heads  and 
well  spread  branches.  Pages  4-5. 

A “modified-leader”  tree  is  better  than  an  “open  center”  tree. 
It  has  a stronger  head,  is  more  spreading  and  is  lower.  Page  7. 

Heading  back  or  “tipping”  depends  upon  the  growth  being  made. 

Page  8. 

Weak  crotches  can  be  largely  prevented  by  unequal  heading  back 
of  equal  sized  branches.  Page  10. 

The  formation  of  blossom  buds  is  related  to  amount  of  growth 
made.  Pages  12—14. 

Spur  blossom  buds  are  hardier  than  the  blossom  buds  along  the 
short  branches.  Page  15. 

Early  hearing  is  often  undesirable.  Keep  up  the  growth  of  the 
tree  and  develop  a spur  fruiting  system  in  the  young  tree. 

Pages  17-18. 

The  amount  of  f mi  ting  area  is  but  little  affected  by  the  type  of 
pruning.  The  kind  of  fruiting  area  is  greatly  affected  by  the  prun- 
ing. Pages  19-20. 

s' 

A maximum  bearing  area  is  developed  by  rather  young  trees. 
This  is  usually  far  in  excess  of  the  fruit  developed.  Pages  2,1-23. 

Low,  open  trees  are  best — How  to  grow  them.  Pages  25-26. 

Rejuvenation  pruning  is  seldom  satisfactory.  Page  28. 

Pruning  is  only  one  means  of  keeping  up  strong  growth  of  the 
trees.  Soil  fertility  and  cultivation  are  other  means.  Use  pruning 
to  keep  the  tops  open  and  other  cultural  practices  to  maintain  the 
growth.  Page  29. 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


Pruning  helps  in  at  least  four  ways  to  make  cherry  growing 
more  profitable.  It  keeps  up  the  bearing  area  of  the  trees,  re- 
duces winter-killing  of  the  blossom  buds,  cheapens  production 
by  making  lower  trees,  and  lengthens  the  life  of  the  trees  be- 
cause of  the  stronger  tree  heads  formed. 

The  orchard  investment  pays  best  when  large,  regular  and 
cheap  crops  are  secured  through  a long  term  of  years.  Regular 
pruning  of  the  right  kind  helps  to  give  these  profitable  results 
for  the  sour  cherry. 

Wisconsin  has  become  during  the  last  few  years  one  of  the 
principal  cherry  producing  states.  Pruning  has  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  successful  development  of  the  cherry  in- 
dustry. Observations  made  on  Early  Richmond  and  Mont- 
morency trees  during  the  last  three  years,  as  well  as  the  experi- 
ences of  the  most  successful  growers  of  Michigan  and  Wiscon- 
sin, show  that  the  sour  cherry  tree  thrives  best  when  regularly, 
and  often  heavily,  pruned.  This  is  contrary  to  the  frequent  ad- 
vice that  the  cherry  tree  should  be  pruned  little,  if  any.  These 
varieties  need  as  much  or  more  pruning  than  is  usually  given 
apple  trees  of  the  same  ages. 

Prune  Heavily  at  Planting  Time 

Setting  the  tree  firmly  so  that  the  roots  are  in  close  contact  with 
the  soil  is  of  more  value  in  getting  it  to  live  and  start  well  than 
is  careful  root  pruning.  Most  of  the  roots  of  the  tree,  especially 
the  feeding  roots,  are  left  in  the  ground  when  the  tree  is  dug. 
The  usual  rule  is  to  cut  off  crowding  and  broken  roots  and 
shorten  those  which  are  over  10  inches  in  length.  Because  of 
the  loss  of  roots  at  digging  and  the  later  root  pruning,  a like  re- 
duction in  the  amount  of  top  is  needed  to  insure  strong,  new  top 
growth  under  average  soil  conditions.  This  means  heavy  prun- 
ing of  the  top  at  planting  time.  (Fig.  1.) 


4 


Bulletin  298 


Some  growers  choose  the  four  or  five  main  branches  at  this 


time,  removing  all  others.  Although  all  very  weak  growths 

should  be  cut  off,  it  seems 
best  to  wait  until  after  one 
season ’s  growth  has  been 
made  to  choose  the  main 
branches.  Fewer  mistakes 
in  selecting  them  will  be 
made  then,  and  little  or  no 
harm  will  have  come  from 
having  left  a moderate  ex- 
cess of  branches. 

As  cherry  trees  often  have 
few  buds  left  after  packing 
and  shipping,  definite  rules 
as  to  * the  amount  to  head 
back  cannot  be  given.  If 
plenty  of  buds  are  present, 
six  to  nine  or  ten  inches  is  a 
good  length  to  leave  the 
branches.  At  least  two  good 
buds  should  be  left  on  each 
branch.  (Fig.  1.) 

Prune  After  the  Spring 
Thaw 

Probably  the  best  time  to 
prune  is  after  the  spring 
thaw.  It  is  much  better  to 
prune  in  the  late  fall  or  early 
winter,  if  labor  is  available 


FIG.  1.— GUT  THE  TREES  BACK  HEAV- 
ILY AT  THE  TIME  OF  PLANTING 

Trees  with  too  much  top  seldom  start 
well.  They  merely  “feather  out”  the  first 
season.  Out  off  all  but  the  leader  and  four 
to  six  of  the  best  branches.  Out  the 
branches  back  to  two  or  three  strong  buds, 
as  shown  by  the  arrows.  Leave  the  leader 
three  to  four  inches  longer  than  the 
branches. 


then,  than  to  fail  to  get  the 
pruning  done. 

Prune  the  Young  Tree 
Carefully 

The  young  tree  should  be 


pruned  each  year.  The  time  to  start  it  low,  keep  it  free  from 
weak  crotches,  and  develop  a good  form  is  while  it  is  young. 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


5 


FROM  planting 


This  tree  was  cut  back  heavily  at  planting.  The  photograph  shows  it  before  and 
after  pruning.  It  made  a strong  growth.  Any  one  of  the  branches,  A,  B,  C1,  or  D, 
could  be  used  as  a leader. 


Low  Headed  Trees  Are  Best 

The  development  of  orchard  cultivators  has  made  it  unneces- 
sary to  grow  high-headed  trees.  Ease  of  harvesting  and  spray- 
ing has  made  the  low  tree  generally  popular.  About  18  to  24 
inches  is  the  favored  height  of  the  lowest  main  branch. 


6 


Bulletin  298 


T'his  nine-year  Richmond  grew  tall  too  fast,  principally  because  it  had  but  few  main 
branches  and  was  pruned  little.  M'ost  of  the  low  wood  has  been  outgrown  and  is  dying. 
Most  of  the  crop  is  outside  of  the  mark  indicated.  Heading  back  is  becoming  necessary. 
If  cut  back  far  enough  to  give  a tree  of  good  height,  most  of  the  fruiting  wood  is 
gone  for  one  season.  Keep  the  trees  low  when  younger. 


FIG.  3.— “OPEN  CENTER’’  TREES  ARE  SUBJECT  TO  WEAK  HEADS  AND 
DENSE  TOPS 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


7 


Grow  a “Modified-Leader”  Tree 

Try  to  avoid  weak  crotches  when  starting  the  young  tree.  Be- 
cause it  is  likely  to  break  down  after  coming  into  fruiting,  the 
so-called  “open  center”  type  of  tree  (Fig.  3)  has  been  largely 
dropped  from  Wisconsin  orchard  practice. 

The  open  center  tree  is  formed  by  cutting  out  the  leader  or 
most  upright  branch  at  planting  time.  This  leaves  an  opening 
in  the  center  around  which  the  main  branches  are  spaced. 

A leader  or  “modified  leader”  form  of  tree  has  come  into 
favor  in  place  of  the  open  center  tree.  (Figs.  4,  5.)  This  tree  is 
grown  with  a leader  for  two  or  three  seasons.  At  this  time  the 
leader  is  suppressed  or  modified  by  being  cut  back  to  a lateral 
branch  of  the  last  season’s  growth.  (Fig.  8.) 

The  growers  who  were  most  careful  to  start  open  center  trees 
found  that  their  trees  were  not  only  weak  and  likely  to  split, 
but  also  that  the  tops  of  the  bearing  trees  were  not  open.  The 
openness  of  the  top  is  not  so  much  due  to  the  pruning  given  the 
newly  planted  tree  as  it  is  to  the  pruning  done  each  season  when 
the  tree  is  older.  In  fact,  open  center  trees  which  are  not 
pruned  regularly,  are  more  subject  to  dense  centers  than  are 
modified  leader  trees. 

The  branches  of  trees  grow  toward  the  light.  When  the  cen- 
tral branch  is  cut  out  at  the  time  the  tree  is  set  to  form  an  open 
center  tree,  there  is  better  light  in  the  center  of  the  tree  than  at 
the  sides.  This  permits  the  main  branches  to  grow  straight  up 
and  close  together.  (Fig.  3.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  shading 
done  by  the  leader  in  the  other  form  of  tree,  causes  the  main 
branches  to  grow  in  a more  spreading  direction.  (Fig.  4.) 

Train  the  Tree  the  First  Year  After  Planting 

Begin  to  train  the  tree  one  year  after  planting.  There  are 
four  important  things  to  do:  (1)  Select  the  main  branches, 
leaving  a leader;  (2)  remove  cross  and  crowding  branches; 
(3)  keep  the  top  balanced  or  equal  sided;  (4)  do  necessary  head- 
ing back.  (Fig.  2.) 

Grow  a Tree  With  Many  Branches 

Fully  grown  trees  with  seven  to  nine  main  branches  and  few 
laterals  are  better  than  those  with  only  four  or  five  main 
branches  and  more  laterals.  They  have  a better  spur  habit  and 


8 


Bulletin  298 


it  is  easier  to  harvest  the  fruit  from  them.  (Fig.  4.)  Trees  with 
few  main  branches  grow  tall  too  quickly,  owing  to  too  much  ter- 
minal growth  of  these  few  branches.  (Fig.  3.) 

The  number  to  leave  the  first  year  depends  largely  upon  their 
position  and  the  amount  of  growth  being  made.  Only  strong, 
well-placed  branches  which  are  making  a good  growth  should  be 
left.  If  possible,  have  them  well  spaced  around  the  leader,  a 
good  distance  apart  and  growing  at  a wide  angle  with  the  tree 
trunk  or  leader.  Do  not  try  to  use  weak  growths  as  the  main 


FIG.  4.— THE  LOW  SPREADING  TREE  HAS  MANY  FRUIT  SPURS 
Modified  leader  trees  with  many  branches  are  best.  The  low  branches  are  not  out- 
grown by  the  top  ones.  The  top  is  comparatively  shallow  and  because  of  less  shading 
the  spurs  live  longer.  Picking  is  easier. 

branches  of  the  tree.  Four  or  five  may  be  left  the  first  year  and 
the  remainder  selected  a year  or  two  later  from  others  arising 
from  the  leader. 


Head  Back  as  Needed 

Heading  back,  or  ‘Hipping,”  of  the  new  growth  to  increase 
the  number  of  branches,  as  practiced  with  the  apple,  is  seldom 
needed  with  the  cherry,  owing  to  its  habit  of  freely  producing 
lateral  branches.  When  the  seasonal  growth  is  long  (from  20 
to  24  inches  or  more)  tipping  is  needed  to  prevent  the  growth 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


9 


FIG.  5.— GROW  A MODIFIED  LEADER  TREE 


A young  Richmond  one  year  after  suppressing  the  leader.  It  has  a strong  head,  it 
is  more  spreading  and  it  has  a better  fruiting  habit.  Many  branches  of  about  equal 
growth  and  size  give  the  best  tree. 


FIG.  6.-HEAD  BACK  THE  BRANCHES  TO  PREVENT  SLENDER  GROWTH 
A low  open  top  does  not  mean  a thin  top.  Leggy,  willowy  branches  should  be 
headed  back.  Heading  also  increases  their  number.  Stocky  branches  do  not  whip 
about  with  the  wind  and  injure  the  fruit. 


10 


Bulletin  298 


of  long  willowy  branches  (Fig.  6)  or  too  great  height  of  the 
trees.  From  16  to  20  inches  is  a good  length  at  which  to  head 
back.  Growths  shorter  than  this  need  no  tipping  unless  it  is 
done  to  increase  the  number  of  branches.  It  is  not  desirable  to 
cut  the  branches  shorter  than  about  16  inches. 


FIG.  7—  BRANCHES  OF  DIFFERENT  LENGTHS  MAKE  DIFFERENT  AMOUNTS 

O F GRO  WT  H 

Unequal  cutting  back  results  in  unequal  growth.  This  prevents  weak  crotches.  Com- 
pare the  thickness  of  the  branches  with  the  lengths  at  which  they  are  cut  back. 

Head  Back  to  Prevent  Crotches 

The  main  use  of  tipping  of  the  young  cherry  trees  is  to  pre- 
vent the  branches  being  weak-crotched.  When  two  or  more 
branches  grow  out  close  together,  the  one  cut  back  the  least  will 
make  the  greatest  terminal  growth  the  next  season.  (Fig.  7.) 
A difference  of  three  or  four  inches  in  length  is  enough  to  cause 
unequal  growth  and  thus  prevent  limbs  of  equal  size  with  weak 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


11 


crotches.  The  formation  of  a weak  crotch  may  result  wherever 
two  branches  come  out  together. 

The  principle  of  equal  growth  of  equal  length  branches  which 
grow  out  together,  explains  the  weakness  of  the  open  center  tree 
in  which  equal  heading-back  of  the  branches  gives  equal  growth 
and  a weak-crotched  tree  head.  In  the  case  of  modified  leader 
trees,  the  leader  should  be  left  three  or  four  inches  longer  than 
the  side  branches.  (Fig.  2.) 

Continue  the  Training  the  Second  Year 

The  pruning  done  the  second  and  third  years  after  planting 
and  probably  the  fourth  year,  will  be  about  the  same  as  for  the 
first  year  after  planting — taking  out  excess  and  crowding  wood, 
selecting  new  foundation  branches  as  needed,  and  checking  the 
formation  of  crotches  by  unequal  heading-back  of  forked 
growths.  Less  tipping  will  be  done  after  the  tree  becomes  older, 
especially  when  the  annual  growth  becomes  less  than  18  inches. 

The  leader  may  be  suppressed  either  the  second  or  third  sea- 
son, preferably  the  third.  (Fig.  8.)  This  is  done  by  cutting  the 
last  season ’s  growth  of  the  leader  back  to  a lateral  branch.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  having  two  top  branches  of  equal  length 
or  a weak  crotch  wfill  be  formed  at  this  point. 

Prune  the  Bearing  Tree  for  Fruit 

Securing  proper  form  is  largely  the  object  in  pruning  the 
tree  until  it  is  four  or  five  years  of  age.  After  that  time,  the 
chief  aim  of  the  pruner  should  be  to  develop  and  maintain  the 
fruiting  wood  of  the  tree ; that  is,  to  aid  spur  development  and 
especially  to  try  to  keep  the  fruit  spurs  alive  on  the  lower  wood 
where  economical  harvesting  is  possible. 

Too  much  pruning  is  done  for  the  one  purpose  of  removing 
dead  wood.  The  dead  wood  is  largely  due  to  shading.  This 
loss  of  low  wood  should  be  prevented  by  doing  the  pruning  to 
keep  the  top  open  earlier  in  the  life  of  the  tree. 

An  open-topped  tree  is  not  one  with  a hollow  top  or  a so- 
called  vase  form  of  tree,  but  rather  a tree  of  average  form  which 
is  kept  open  by  thinning  out,  so  there  is  little  shading  as  com- 
pared to  the  heavy  shade  in  dense  bushy  trees.  (Fig.  11.)  It  is, 
however,  best  to  have  a low,  spreading  form  of  tree,  as  this 


12 


Bulletin  298 


permits  the  greatest  access  of  light  to  a large  fruiting  area  and 
yields  the  best  crops  of  fruit.  (Fig  12.) 


FIG.  8.— SUPPRESS  THE  LEADER  THE  SECOND  OR  THIRD  YEAR 

Cutting  back  the  leader  prevents  the  side  branches  being  outgrown.  By  the  second 
or  third  year  the  main  branches  should  be  well  spread  and  developed.  Head  back  to 
either  point,  as  indicated.  This  three-year  Montmorency  also  needs  some  thinning  out 
and  heading  back  to  avoid  crotches. 


How  the  Fruit  Buds  Are  Borne 

A bud  is  produced  with  each  leaf  along  the  new  growth. 
(Fig.  9.)  These  buds  are  of  two  kinds,  “leaf”  buds  and  blossom 
or  “fruit”  buds.  The  leaf  buds  produce  a woody  growth  the  sea- 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


13 


son  after  they  are  formed ; the  blossom  buds  produce  only  blos- 
soms. (Fig,  10.)  If  the  growths  from  the  leaf  buds  are' short, 
from  one-half  to  one  inch  or  less  in  length,  they  are  called  spurs. 
(Fig.  9.)  Longer  growths  are  spoken  of  in  this  paper  as 
branches,  without  regard  to  whether  they  are  borne  laterally  or 
terminally. 

The  amount  of  growth  which  a branch  makes  largely  deter- 
mines whether  it  will  bear  leaf  or  blossom  buds  or  some  buds 
of  both  kinds.  Growths  under  six  inches  long  will  bear  mostly 
blossom  buds  and  those  over  12  to  14  inches  long  will  have  mostly 
leaf  buds.  It  is  seen,  then,  that  spurs  and  short  branches  will 
have  practically  all  blossom  buds.  The  terminal  bud  is  a leaf 
bud.  The  new  terminal  growth  comes  from  this  bud  each  sea- 
son. 

The  blossom  buds  of  a tree  are  borne  on  spurs  and  as  lateral 
buds  on  branches.  When  most  of  the  buds  are  on  the  spurs  it^  is 
said  that  the  tree  has  a spur  fruiting  system ; when  the  majority 
are  on  the  branches,  a lateral  (bud)  fruiting  system,  although 
the  tree  is  bearing  buds  on  both  spurs  and  branches  in  both  cases. 
In  general,  dense  trees  have  a lateral  fruiting  system  and  open 
trees  a spur  system. 

The  ratio  of  wood  growth  to  blossom  bud  formation  varies 
somewhat  with  the  season,  the  variety,  the  age  of  tree,  the  vigor 
of  the  tree  and  the  part  of  the  tree.  The  development  of  a 
spur  fruiting  system  depends,  however,  upon  keeping  the  tree 
growing  vigorously,  as  leaf  buds,  from  which  spurs  grow,  are 
present  in  large  numbers  only  on  rather  long  growths,  as  shown 
by  Table  I. 


Table  i. —Percentages  of  Leaf  Buds  on  Terminal  Growths 


Length  of  terminals  in  inches 

1917 

1918 

Richmond 

Richmond 

Montmorency 

4 

0.0 

2.3 

4.3 

6 

8.47 

4.8 

6.3 

8 

10.59 

9.2 

22.8 

10 

20.47 

17.1 

30.1 

12 

46.07 

24.2 

53.9 

14 

67.95 

43. 

75. 

16 

65.3 

82.4 

18 

75.8 

93  7 

Besides  showing  the  increase  in  percentage  of  leaf  buds  as  the 
length  of  the  growth  increases,  Table  I shows  that  Montmorency 


14 


Bulletin  298 


FIG.  9.— KEEP  UP  THE  GROWTH  AND 
DEVELOP  A SPUR  FRUITING 
SYSTEM 

Buds  are  formed  with  the  leaves  on  new 
growths  (above  the  top  arrows)  . These  are 
either  blossom  or  “leaf”  buds,  depending 
largely  upon  the  length  of  the  growth. 
Short  growths  of  less  than  six  inches  (at 
left  between  the  arrows)  form  mostly  blos- 
som buds  which  produce  blossoms  and 
fruits  and  perish;  longer  growths  of  six  to 
ten  inches  (in  center)  have  some  leaf  buds 
which  develop  into  spurs  or  branches  the 
next  season;  and  long  growths  as  10  to  15 
inches  (at  right)  have  mostly  leaf  buds. 


FIG.  10.— THE  BLOSSOM 
BUDS  ALONG  THE  SHORT 
BRANCHES  OFTEN  WIN- 
TER KILL 

The  spur  buds  are  much 
hardier  than  blossom  buds. 
The  blossoms  of  the  unde- 
veloped buds  are  dead.  Each 
bud  should  produce  three  to 
five  blossoms  as  at  the  tip. 
Such  growths  form  no  spurs 
as  all  the  buds  are  blossom 
buds. 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


15 


trees  had  many  more  leaf  buds  on  growths  of  8 to  10  inches 
long  than  Richmond  trees.  Because  of  this  variety  habit,  it  is 
easier  to  develop  a spur  system  with  Montmorency  than  with 
Richmond. 

Spur  Buds  Are  Hardier 

A large  spur  fruiting  system  is  better  than  a large  lateral 
fruiting  system.  Spurs  should  form  new  terminal  growths  and 
blossom  buds  and  produce  fruit  for  several  seasons  as  compared 
to  the  one-year  crop  on  the  branches.  The  greater  height  of 
many  of  the  terminals  adds  to  picking  troubles.  A more  im- 
portant advantage  in  favor  of  the  spur  fruiting  system  is  that 
the  spur  buds  are  hardier  than  those  borne  on  the  branches. 
This  is  shown  by  Table  II. 


Table  II. — Winter  Killing  op  Blossom  Buds  on  Spurs  and 
Branches,  1918 


Variety 

Age 

Spurs 

Branches 

Per  cent  of 
dead  buds 

Blossoms 
per  live  bud 

Per  cent  of 
dead  buds 

Blossoms 
per  live  bud 

Richmond 

16 

59.2 

2.37 

86.1 

1.75 

Montmorency 

16 

44  1 

1.73 

85.4 

1.52 

Richmond 

6 

33.4 

2.33 

90.2 

1.74 

Montmorency 

6 

13.4 

2.49 

73.2 

1.81 

Average 

iTTi 

2723 

8377 

TTn 

Table  II  shows  the  marked  difference  in  winter  injury  between 
the  spur  blossom  buds  (Fig.  9)  and  blossom  buds  on  branches. 
(Fig.  10.)  Only  37.5  per  cent  of  the  spur  blossom  buds  were 
killed  while  83.7  per  cent  of  the  buds  on  the  branches  were  dead 
in  the  spring.  Usually  one  or  more  of  the  four  or  five  blossoms  in 
the  £ ‘ living  ’ ’ buds  were  killed.  The  buds  on  the  spurs  developed 
2.23  blossoms  each,  and  those  on  the  branches  had  but  1.71  blos- 
soms to  each  bud.  Thus,  each  100  spur  buds  developed  139  blos- 
soms while  100  buds  on  the  branches  produced  but  28  blossoms. 

Less  than  a half  crop  of  fruit  could  have  been  produced  on  the 
branches  if  all  the  living  blossoms  developed  into  cherries.  More 
than  enough  of  the  spur-bud  blossoms  were  alive  to  give  above 
the  average  yield.  Since  having  spurs  in  the  tree  means  the 


16 


Bulletin  298 


difference  between  a crop  and  a failure  when  winter  injury  is 
very  severe,  as  in  1917-1918,  the  value  of  a large  spur  fruiting 
system  as  a means  of  avoiding  winter  injury  of  the  blossom 
buds  is  seen. 

Montmorency  Spur  Habit  Gives  Hardier  Buds 

Table  II  also  shows  that  Richmond  buds  are  more  subject  to 
killing  than  Montmorency  buds.  This  difference  does  not  ap- 


FTG.  11.— THIS  TYPE  OF  OPEN  TREE  BORE  FRUIT  IN  1918 

This  eight-year  old  open  center  Richmond  tree  has  many  spurs  and  consequently 
many  “hardy”  buds.  The  top  has  been  kept  open  by  removing  of  lateral  limbs. 
Heading  back  the  top  (Fig.  15)  will  keep  the  low  wood  alive  and  secure  fruit  low 
down.  A good  tree  but  less  desirable  than  Fig.  12. 

pear  to  be  enough  to  account  for  the  fact  that,  in  general,  Mont- 
morency trees  had  plenty  of  blossoms  in  1918,  while  Richmond 
trees  had  too  few  for  a crop.  The  difference  seems  to  be  due  to 
the  greater  number  of  spurs  on  Montmorency  trees. 

It  was  found  that  average  Montmorency  trees,  eight  to  ten 
years  of  age,  which  had  been  pruned  but  little,  had  nearly  twice 
as  many  spurs  as  unpruned  Richmond  trees  of  the  same  ages. 
They  averaged  about  3,750  and  2,200  spurs  respectively.  With 
most  of  the  buds  on  the  branches  dead,  2,000  spurs  having  40 
per  cent  of  dead  buds  form  too  small  a fruiting  area  to  produce 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


17 


a crop  of  fruit  on  trees  of  this  age,  even  should  all  the  living 
blossoms  develop  into  fruits.  In  seasons  when  the  buds  are 
badly  injured,  a short  crop  is  borne  on  trees  with  rather  few 
spurs. 

Proper  Care  Gives  Spurs  and  Hardy  Buds 

Some  Richmond  orchards  had  enough  blossoms  to  produce  a 
crop  of  fruit  in  1918.  In  all  such  cases  it  was  found  that  these 


FIG.  12.— THIS  TYPE  OF  TREE  ALSO  BORE  WELL  IN  1918 

A six-year  Richmond.  A modified  leader  tree  and  more  spreading  and  lower  than 
Fig.  11.  Some  thinning  of  crossing  limbs  is  needed.  Although  this  type  of  tree  has 
apparently  little  wood  it  actually  has  large  fruiting  surfaces. 

fruitful  trees  had  a larger  spur  fruiting  system,  as  a direct 
result  of  the  pruning  and  care  given  the  trees.  It  was  found 
that  open-topped  trees  of  six  to  seven  years  or  age  had  as  many 
spurs  as  eight-  or  nine-year-,  old  trees  which  had  been  given  little 
or  improper  pruning  and  had  dense  tops.  Where  the  terminal 
growth  was  kept  long  a spur  fruiting  system  was  developed  and 
if  this  had  been  saved  by  keeping  the  tops  of  the  trees  open  a 
crop  was  secured  under  unfavorable  conditions. 


18 


Bulletin  298 


Avoid  Too  Early  Bearing 

Some  growers  want  their  trees  to  bear  a crop  when  very 
young.  While  this  practice  gives  small  early  returns,  it  is  found 
to  be  a bad  practice  in  the  end. 

Heavy  crops  of  fruit  on  four-year  trees  are  often  mostly  from 
blossom  buds  along  one-year  wood.  As  growths  of  less  than  six 


FIG.  13.— DENSE-TOPPED  TREES  HAVE  FEW  SPURS 

Such  trees  have  many  terminals,  too  much  shade,  few  spurs,  tender  buds  and  little 
fruit.  Compare  with  Fig.  14.  See  Table  III,  page  20. 

to  eight  inches  form  more  blossom  buds  than  do  longer  growths, 
early  bearing  is  usually  the  result  of  little  growth  being  made 
and  takes  place  at  the  expense  of  fruit  spur  production.  The 
formation  of  blossom  buds  on  the  branches,  which  increases  early 
bearing,  prevents  spurs  being  formed.  While  early  crops  may 
be  secured,  the  development  of  a spur  fruiting  system  is  hin- 
dered. Keeping  up  the  growth  of  the  young  trees  in  the  end 
will  mean  greater  returns. 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


19 


Different  Systems  of  Pruning  Have  Little  Effect  Upon  the 
Amount  of  Fruiting  Area 

Young  unpruned  trees  are  larger  and  will  bear  earlier  than 
pruned  trees.  Pruning  reduces  the  size  of  the  top  and  checks 
root  growth  which,  in  turn,  limits  the  total  top  growth  the  fol- 
lowing seasons. 


FIG.  14.— OPEN-TOPPED  TREES  HAVE  MANY  SPURS 

Here  are  few  terminals,  plenty  of  light,  many  spurs,  hardy  buds  and  a crop  of  fruit. 
Compare  with  Fig.  13.  See  Table  III. 


Unpruned  trees  bear  earlier  than  pruned  trees  because  they 
make  shorter  annual  growths,  although  more  total  growth.  The 
difference  is  apparently  due  to  the  number  of  branches  or  ter- 
minal growths  in  the  two  trees.  While  pruning  may  reduce  the 
total  wood  produced  it  will  increase  the  length  of  the  terminal 
growth  by  reducing  the  number  of  branches. 

Very  heavy  pruning  may  greatly  affect  the  amount  of  fruit- 
ing wood  in  the  tree  but  a study  of  the  pruning  systems  used 
in  the  Sturgeon  Bay  (Wisconsin)  and  Grand  Traverse  (Michi- 


20 


Bulletin  298 


gan)  districts  shows  that  the  style  of  pruning  has  little  effect 
upon  the  amount  of  fruiting  area  of  trees  in  the  same  planting. 
That  is,  trees  of  the  same  age  and  under  the  same  orchard  treat- 
ment will  have  about  equal  numbers  of  blossom  buds,  even  when 
different  systems  of  pruning  have  been  followed,  providing 
regular  pruning  of  about  equal  amount  is  done. 

Different  Systems  of  Pruning  Greatly  Affect  the  Kind  of 

Fruiting  Area 

The  style  of  pruning,  outside  of  the  amount  done,  has  a 
marked  influence  upon  the  number  of  spur  buds  as  compared 
with  the  number  of  blossom  buds  on  the  branches  of  the  tree; 
that  is,  upon  the  kind  of  fruiting  area.  Pruning,  which  reduces 
the  number  of  terminals,  helps  to  keep  up  the  length  of  the  ter- 
minal growth  and  thus  gives  a better  production  of  spurs,  as 
a lack  of  pruning  results  in  short  branches,  the  production  of 
lateral  blossom  buds  and  few  spurs. 

While  pruning  encourages  spur  formation,  it  has  an  even  more 
direct  effect  on  fruiting  in  keeping  the  spurs  alive  after  they  are 
formed.  Cherry  spurs  will  not  live  in  heavy  shade.  Open- 
topped  trees,  or  at  least  low-spreading  trees,  are  needed  if  the 
low  wood  and  spurs  are  to  be  saved.  Pruning  which  keeps  the 
trees  low  and  the  tops  open  can  be  used  to  save  the  spurs  after 
they  are  formed.  Table  III  shows  the  average  condition  found 
in  dense  and  open-topped  trees.  The  records  are  of  eight-year- 
old  Montmorency  trees  standing  at  opposite  corners  of  the  same 
open  space.  The  dense  tree  (Fig.  13)  was  larger  than  the  open 
tree  (Fig.  14). 

Table  III. — Effect  of  Openness  of  Top  Upon  Fruiting  Habit  and 
Fruit  Production 


Dense  tree 


Open  tree 


1680. 

2.3 

3864 

1610 

7.0 

11270. 

15134 

24.66 

83.75 

42.5 

4870 

1.62 


Number  of  spurs 

Blossom  buds  per  spur 

Total  buds  on  spurs 

Number  of  branches 

Blossom  buds  per  branch 

Total  buds  on  branches 

Total  buds  on  tree 

Percentage  of  live  buds  on  branches, 

Percentage  of  live  buds  on  spurs 

Percentage  of  crop  on  spurs  

Total  fruits  per  tree 

Cases  per  tree  (3000  fruits) 


2580. 

3.0 

7740. 


8.8 

7744. 

15484. 

25.33 

82.4 

72.0 


2.31 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


21 


As  compared  with  the  large,  dense  tree  the  smaller,  typical 
open-topped  tree  had  more  spurs,  fewer  branches  (growths  of 
more  than  inch  in  length),  about  equal  killing  of  buds  on 
spurs  and  branches,  and  an  equal  number  of  buds, — that  is,  an 
equal  fruiting  area.  It  bore  more  fruit  than  the  dense  tree, 
because  the  buds  on  its  greater  number  of  spurs  were  less  in- 
jured by  cold  than  the  buds  along  the  greater  number  of 
branches  on  the  dense  tree. 

With  less  severe  winter  conditions,  dense  trees  would  probably 
have  fruited  as  heavily  as  trees  with  more  open  tops.  They 
could  have  produced  no  more  fruit,  as  they  have  no  greater 
fruiting  area.  Almost  without  exception,  the  only  Richmond 
trees  bearing  a good  crop  in  the  Sturgeon.  Bay  district  this  year 
were  trees  of  a very  open  type.  (Figs.  11  and  12.) 

The  root  system  of  a tree  will  apparently  support  about  a 
given  number  of  leaves  with  their  buds.  If  a tree  has  a very 
dense  top,  the  food  and  moisture  supply  is  so  distributed  to  the 
excess  number  of  branches  that  little  terminal  growth  is  made 
and  large  numbers  of  blossom  buds  are  formed  on  the  branches. 
On  the  other  hand,  open-topped  trees  have  fewer  terminal 
branches,  the  growths  are  greater,  leaf  buds  are  formed  and 
the  spurs  which  result  produce  as  many  buds  as  are  formed  on 
the  dense  tree.  This  is  possible  because  the  spurs  average  about 
four  blossom  buds  each. 

Rather  Young  Trees  Have  a Maximum  Fruiting  Area 

Montmorency  and  Richmond  trees  in  20-foot  plantings  can 
be  expected  to  reach  their  greatest  fruiting  area  at  10  to  11 
years  of  age.  This  stage  may  be  reached  at  nine  years.  Heavily 
fertilized  trees  which  have  large  percentages  of  spur  buds  may 
continue  to  add  to  the  total  of  their  fruiting  wood  until  they 
are  12  to  13  years  old.  Montmorency  trees  may  be  older  than 
Richmond  before  maximum  bearing  is  reached. 

A maximum  crop  may  not  be  produced  by  a tree  with  a maxi- 
mum fruiting  area,  as  the  conditions  which  give  the  best  setting 
and  development  of  fruits  are  known  to  be  different  from  those 
causing  greatest  blossom  bud  formation. 


22 


Bulletin  298 


FIG.  15. — HOW  TO  TREAT  MANY  OF  THE  OLDER  OPEN  CENTER  TREES 
This  tree  has  been  pruned  at  A.  The  pruning-  next  year  can  be  at  the  points  shown 
by  the  arrows.  Note  that  no  tipping  is  done.  This  would  increase  the  number  of  ter- 
minals and  the  amount  of  shading.  The  branches  are  cut  back  to  laterals.  Note  the 
large  amount  of  low  fruiting  wood,  under  the  line,  as  compared  with  Fig.  19. 


FIG.  16.— THIS  “BRUSH  HEAP”  RESULTS  FROM  LITTLE  PRUNING 
No  heading  back,  no  removal  of  crossing  or  crowding  branches  but  only  pruning  to 
remove  dead  wood  has  been  done.  Practically  all  low  wood  is  dead.  Heading  back  as 
indicated  takes  off  most  of  the  fruiting  wood.  Compare  with  Fig.  15,  a tree  of  the 
same  variety  and  age. 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


23 


Trees  Produce  Many  More  Blossoms  Than  Fruits 

Some  trees  may  have  well  in  excess  of  20,000  fruit  buds,  but 
16,000  to  18,000  is  an  average  maximum  for  Richmond  trees. 
Montmorency  trees  of  equal  age  usually  have  an  average  of  a 
quarter  .to  a third  more  buds  than  Richmond  trees.  If  only 
one  blossom  out  of  every  four  which  is  formed  on  a mature  tree 
should  develop  into  a cherry,  a large  yield  of  five  to  six  cases  of 


PIG.  17.— ANOTHER  ILLUSTRATION  OP  UNDESIRABLE  TOP  WOOD 
The  terminal  growth  of  the  few  main  branches  of  an  open  center  tree  shade  and 
kill  off  much  low  wood.  Keep  the  tops  low  and  spreading  by  cutting  back  as  indicated 
(also  Pig.  15).  Determine  if  the  top  is  too  dense  while  the  tree  is  in  leaf  and  do  the 
dormant  pruning  accordingly.  The  lowest  wood  on  this  tree  has  been  given  very  little 
attention. 


fruit  would  be  produced.  Because  of  this  excess  of  fruiting 
area,  on  the  average  tree,  regular  pruning  can  be  done  without 
reducing  the  crop  .* 

Old  Age  Does  Not  Increase  the  Fruiting  Area 

The  roots  of  the  trees  meet  between  the  rows  when  the  orchard 
has  been  set  about  five  years  and  of  an  average  they  extend 
throughout  the  surface  soil  of  seven-year-old  plantings.  The 

♦The  question  of  the  influence  of  different  amounts  of  pruning  upon  yield 
is  being  investigated  at  present. 


24 


Bulletin  298 


terminal  growths  become  very  much  shorter  about  this  time. 
This  is,  of  course,  influenced'  by  pruning,  cultivation  and  the 
amounts  and  kinds  of  fertilizers  used. 

After  the  trees  are  about  nine  to  ten  years  of  age,  the  dying 
of  lower  wood,  largely  because  of  shading,  balances  the  increase 
in  fruiting  wood  that  might  be  expected  as  the  trees’  become 
older.  When  the  terminal  growth  averages  but  four  to  five 
inches,  as  is  often  the  case,  almost  no  new  spurs  are  formed  and 
just  about  the  usual  number  of  blossom  buds  along  the  branches 
are  produced.  This  explains  why  there  is  no  increase  in  the 
amount  of  fruiting  area  after  much  dying  of  the  lower  wood  be- 
gins. 

It  is  often  considered  that  fruit  production  on  the  branches 
means  added  fruiting  area  and  is  thus  an  advantage.  It  really 
happens  that  the  fruiting  area  of  a tree  is  a rather  constant 
factor  and  the  more  blossom  buds  there  are  on  the  branches,  the 
fewer  spurs  will  be  produced. 


Table  IV.— Relation  of  Age  and  Growth  to  Kind  and  Amount  of  Fruit- 
ing Area  on  Representative  Richmond  Trees,  1918 


Branches* 

Spurs 

Buds 

total 

on 

tree 

Per  ! 
cent 
spur 
buds  1 

Age 

No. 

Aver. 

buds 

Total 

buds 

No. 

Aver. 

buds 

Total 

buds 

4 

20 

4. 

80 

628 

2.75 

1,727 

1,807 

95.5 

Large  growth. 

5 

204 

8. 

1.632 

380 

3.4 

1,292 

2,924 

44.2 

Average  tree. 

6 

390 

8.9 

3.471 

1,768 

3.75 

6.630 

10,101 

65.6 

Very  low  open  tree. 

6 

408 

9.85 

4,019 

1,380 

3.55 

4.899 

8,918 

54.9 

Large,  open  top. 

6 

372 

9.6 

3,571 

940 

3.9 

3,666 

7,237 

50.7 

Medium  size,  open. 

8 

650 

8.25 

5.363 

2,780 

4.0 

11,120 

16.483 

67.5 

Large,  very  open. 

9 

554 

8.7 

4.820 

2,325 

4.14 

9,626 

14.446 

66.6 

Very  open  tree. 

9 

930 

9 12 

8,481 

2.300 

3.34 

7,682 

16,163 

47.6 

Spreading, dense  (Fig  4) 

10  1 

1,030 

8.4 

8. 652 

1.370 

4.1 

5,617 

14, 269 

39.4 

Large  tree,  dense  (Fig.  3) 

10 

590 

9.25 

5,458 

2,780 

4. 

11,120 

16,578 

67.1 

Large  tree,  open  top. 

12 

800 

8.15 

6,520 

3.035 

3.9 

11,837 

18,357 

64.7 

Very  open  top. 

12  ' 

1,840 

8.94 

j 16,450 

1,260 

5.12 

6,451 

22,901 

28,2 

One  year  after  dehorn- 
ing.* 

14  i 

1.080 

9.2 

9,936 

1,466 

4.1 

5,811 

15,747 

36.5 

Topped  tree,  low  wood 
dead.* 

14 

1.020 

7.8 

7,956 

2,310 

4. 

9,240 

17,196 

53.7 

Nitrogen  plat,  large 
growth,  dense. 

14 

1,172 

8.1 

9,493 

1,930 

3.95 

7,229 

16,722 

43.3 

Phosphate  plat,  little 
growth,  dense.* 

16 

620 

7.85 

4,867 

2,310 

3.4 

7,854 

12,721 

61.9 

Low  wood  dead,  little 
growth.* 

18 

1,100 

8.73 

9,603 

2,110 

3.52 

7.427 

17,030 

43.6* 

Strong  growing  old  tree. 

20 

620 

7.2 

4,464 

2,720 

3.6 

9,792 

14,256 

68.9 

Average  tree,  low  wood 
dead.* 

22 

1,205 

6.9 

8,315 

2,195 

3.7? 

8.165 

16,480 

49.6 

Large  tree. 

22 

1.280 

8.2 

10.  496 

2,466 

4. 

9,864 

20.360 

48.5 

Very  large  tree. 

1 

444 

7. 

3,108 

1,480 

3.95 

5,846 

8,954 

65.1 

Med.  size,  very  little 
growth.t 

^Growths  over  one  half  inch  long.  The  average  number  of  buds  per  branch  is  low  owing 
to  a short  growth  in  1918. 

+Many  terminal  growths  are  short  and  class  as  spurs. 

* Very  heavy  top  pruning  forced  many  spurs  into  wood  growth.  Note  that  the  total  fruiting 
area  is  normal  one  year  after  dehorning. 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


25 


Since  large  size  or  old  age  of  trees  does  not  always  mean  a 
greater  fruiting  surface,  as  shown  by  Table  IV,  the  more  con- 
venient low  tree  produced  by  proper  heading  back  would  appear 
to  be  the  type  desider. 


Grow  a Low  Spreading  Open-Topped  Tree 

When  a cherry  tree  is  being  grown,  it  is  preferred  almost 
above  all  else  that  it  be  kept  low  because  of  ease  of  harvesting. 


FIG.  18.— OVER^ THINNING  OF1  THE  TOPS  FORCES  THE  SPURS  INTO 
WOOD  GROWTH 


One  of  the  benefits  of  a spur  fruiting  system— bud  hardiness— is  lost  by  over-thin- 
ning. Keep  the  tops  properly  thinned  out  as  the  tree  develops  and  avoid  too  heavy 
cutting. 

The  present  studies  indicate  that  by  pruning  the  trees  may  be 
kept  low  without  seriously  reducing  the  fruiting  area.  Pruning 
also  reduces  probable  winter-killing  of  the  blossom  buds.  At 
least,  the  buds  which  develop  on  spurs  following  heavy  growth, 
such  as  pruning  encourages,  are  much  hardier  than  the  buds 
along  the  branches.  Openness  of  the  top  resulting  from  prun- 
ing is  also  needed  to  keep  the  lower  fruiting  wood  alive.  (Fig. 
15.) 


26 


Bulletin  298 


How  to  Prune  the  Cherry  Tree 

The  following  outline  is  offered  as  a guide  in  growing  the  best 
cherry  trees. 

1.  Grow  a modified-leader  tree  to  give  a strong  head. 

Fig.  8.)  Trees  with  many  main  branches  are 
best.  Four  or  five  of  the  original  branches  may 
be  left  at  planting  if  they  are  well  placed.  It  is 
best  to  develop  four  or  five  more  from  the  leader 
during  the  next  two  seasons.  Trees  of  this  type 
are  more  spreading,  are  easier  to  pick  from  and 
they  have  a much  better  spur  fruiting  system. 

(Fig.  3.) 

2.  Unless  the  annual  growth  is  over  18  inches  long,  lit- 

tle tipping  is  needed.  Growths  over  20  inches 
long  should  be  headed  back  to  prevent  legginess 
of  the  branches.  Unequal  heading  prevents 
weak  crotches.  (Fig.  7.) 

3.  Keep  the  top  free  from  crossing  limbs  and  excess 

branches.  (Fig.  16.) 

4.  Supplement  pruning  with  thorough  cultivation  to 

help  keep  up  the  terminal  growths  to  insure  spurs 
being  formed. 

5.  After  five  to  six  years,  special  care  is  needed  to  keep 

the  tops  thinned  out  or  “open”  to  admit  sufficient 
sunlight#to  keep  the  inner  spurs  and  lower  fruit- 
ing wood  alive.  (Fig.  17.)  The  main  opera- 
tion is  to  head  back  the  taller  branches  and  those 
•which  grow  toward  the  center  of  the  top.  These 
branches  shade  and  thus  kill  out  much  more  of 
the  lower,  more  desirable  wood  than  they  pro- 
duce by  growing  tall.  Cutting  back  should  be 
done  to  lateral  branches. 

If  a rather  dense  top  is  too  severely  thinned  out, 
such  spurs  as  remain  often  make  a shoot  growth. 

(Fig.  18.)  This  forcing  of  the  spurs  into  shoot 
growths  is  undesirable  as  one  of  the  principal 
assets  of  the  spurs — bud  hardiness — is  lost.  The 
blossom  buds  on  these  shoots  are  as  subject  to 
winter  killing  as  the  buds  on  the  branches. 

6.  Annual  pruning  should  be  done  to  avoid  heavy  cut- 

ting at  any  one  time.  The  amount  to  prune 
varies  with  each  individual  case.  Needed  cutting 
should  be  done  without  fear  of  reducing  the  yield, 
as  the  tree  develops  blossoms  far  in  excess  of  its 
ability  to  mature  fruits. 

7.  It  is  a mistake  to  cut  off  the  low  wood.  (Fig.  19.) 

With  trees  six  to  seven  years  old,  20  per  cent  of 
the  crop  is  often  produced  on  wood  within  less 
than  three  feet  from  the  ground.  This  low  wood 
can  be  thinned  out  as  needed  and  thus  kept  in 
profitable  bearing  condition.  . (Fig.  15.) 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


27 


Variety  Habits  Affect  the  Pruning 

The  pruning  practices  will  be  affected  by  differences  in  the 
habits  of  growth  of  different  varieties.  It  is  more  difficult  to 
grow  a spreading  Montmorency  than  a Richmond  tree  owing  to 
its  more  upright  habit.  It  will  require  heavier  pruning  to  get 
a large  spur-fruiting  system  on  Richmond  trees  because  of  their 
tendency  to  form  blossom  buds  on  the  branches.  Montmorency 


FIG.  19. — KEEP  THE  LOW  FRUITING  WOOD  ON  THE  TREES 

High  heads  and  removal  of  the  low  wood  increase  the  harvesting  troubles.  Compare 
with  the  better  types,  Figs.  11,  12,  15  and  17. 


spurs  are  longer-lived  than  those  of  Richmond.  It  is  possible 
this  may  be  due  to  a difference  in  ability  to  stand  shading.  Al- 
though Montmorency  trees  can  be  left  more  dense  without  ap- 
parent harm  to  the  spurs,  it  is  desired  that  the  trees  of  both 
varieties  be  low  and  open-topped. 

The  Morello  has  been  little  observed.  From  its  semi-dwarf 
habit  and  extreme  tendency  to  form  blossom  buds  on  the 
branches,  it  would  seem  best  to  prune  it  more  after  the  style  of 
the  peach,  though  less  severely. 


28 


Bulletin  298 


Shothole  Fungus  Kills  the  Spurs 

All  the  gains  in  developing  spurs  by  pruning  may  be  lost  if 
the  trees  are  allowed  to  become  affected  with  shothole  fungus. 
The  early  falling  of  the  leaves  starves  the  spurs  to  death. 


FIG.  20.— REJUVENATION  PRUNING  IS  TO  BE  AVOIDED 

Keep  the  trees  within  bounds  as  they  develop.  Thinning  out  as  done  here  is  not 
severe  enough  to  force  new  spur-bearing  wood  on  average  old  cherry  trees.  Apple  trees 
which  have  more  permanent  fruiting  spurs  may  be  treated  in  this  way.  Cutting  back 
at  such  points  as  indicated  forces  a strong  newT  growth  as  well  as  lowers  the  top. 

Renewal  Pruning  Is  Better  Than  Rejuvenation  Pruning 

The  old  cherry  tree  seems  to  offer  little  chance  for  rejuvena- 
tion pruning  or  dehorning.  It  should  be  kept  growing  strongly 
by  regular  renewal  pruning,  as  has  been  outlined.  There  are, 
however,  older  trees  which  have  already  been  allowed  to  grow 
too  tall  for  profitable  harvesting.  The  possible  treatment  for 
these  depends  largely  upon  two  questions. 

How  much  growing  wood  remains  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
tree? 

What  is  the  condition  of  the  trunk  ? 

Severe  heading  back  is  sometimes  practiced  upon  overgrown 
trees.  (Fig.  20.)  While  this  severe  cutting  back  is  un- 


Prune  the  Cherry  Trees 


29 


desirable  and  should  be  avoided  by  doing  earlier  pruning,  it 
is,  however,  entirely  practical  under  the  circumstances,  espe- 
cially if  there  is  still  a large  amount  of  low  fruiting  wood. 

Very  few  “ suckers”  will  grow  from  near  the  cuts  if  the 
branches  are  cut  back  to  near  large  laterals.  The  main  objec- 
tion to  such  cutting  seems  to  be  that  large  numbers  of  the  fruit 
spurs  are  forced  into  wood  growth  as  previously  mentioned. 
(Fig.  18.)  There  is  also  a temporary  loss  of  fruiting  area. 
This,  however,  soon  returns  to  normal  and  the  tree  is  free  from 
its  former  unprofitable  high  wood. 

True  rejuvenation  of  weak,  sickly  trees  will  usually  not  pay, 
as  the  trunks  of  such  trees  are  generally  so  badly  decayed  that 
there  is  no  foundation  upon  which  to  build.  With  sound  trunks, 
new  tops  can  be  produced  wherever  it  is  possible  to  cut  back  to 
growing  shoots  or  small  branches.  (Fig.  20.)  The  cherry  does 
not  readily  make  sucker  growths,  so  success  in  heading  back  de- 
pends largely  upon  having  growing  points  near  where  it  is  de- 
sired to  do  the  cutting  back. 

Pruning  Cannot  Take  the  Place  of  Soil  Fertility  and 
Cultivation 

Pruning  alone  should  not  be  depended  upon  to  give  the  best 
crops  of  fruit.  To  regulate  the  amount  of  growth  by  pruning 
alone  is  too  expensive.  It  would  also  mean  a probable  serious 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  fruiting  area  because  of  too  heavy 
pruning.  Proper  cultural  methods  are  a better  means  of  keep- 
ing up  a strong  growth  of  the  trees.  As  previously  mentioned, 
in  20-foot  plantings  the  tree  roots  come  together  between  the 
rows  when  the  orchard  has  been  set  about  five  years.  At  seven 
to  eight  years  the  roots  have  grown  throughout  the  surface  soil. 
While  plenty  of  soil  fertility  has  been  needed  before  this  time, 
it  is  of  more  value  as  a means  of  keeping  up  the  wood  growth 
of  the  trees  from  this  time  on.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
the  amount  of  growth  produced  is  principally  the  result  of 
cultural  conditions.  While  pruning  helps  to  keep  up  the  growth 
of  the  tree,  its  chief  role  is  to  maintain  the  spur  system  of  the 
tree  after  it  is  formed,  and  to  keep  the  tree  “ within  reach  of 
the  ground”  so  that  spraying  and  picking  can  be  done  cheaply. 


30 


Bulletin  298 


Don't  Sow  the  Cover  Crop  Too  Early 

The  use  of  a cover  crop  to  check  the  growth  of  the  trees  to 
prevent  winter-killing  of  the  new  wood  is  largely  unnecessary 
in  the  case  of  bearing  trees.  In  most  cases  the  terminal  buds 
have  formed  before  cherry  harvest  and  long  before  danger  of 
too  late  growing  is  possible. 

The  fault  of  bearing  trees  in  Wisconsin  is  that  they  fail  to 
make  as  much  growth  as  is  desired  and  not  that  they  grow  too 
late  in  the  summer.  More  growth  is  desired  than  is  usually 
made.  • Even  in  cases  where  a strong  growth  is  being  made, 
sowing  a cover  crop  too  early  or  letting  the  early  weeds  grow  as 
a cover  to  hold  the  snow,  may  ruin  the  effects  of  fertilizing  or 
pruning  in  keeping  up  the  growth  of  the  tree. 


This  opportunity  is  taken  to  express  a grateful  appreciation  of  the 
assistance  given  by  M.  B.  Goff,  County  Agricultural  Representative  in 
Door  County,  for  aid  in  collecting  the  data  upon  which  the  recommen- 
dations in  this  paper  are  based. 


Bulletin  299 


March,  1919 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 

A.  R.  WHITSON  and  H W.  ULLSPERGER 


PROPER  CULTIVATION  BRINGS  RESULTS 

A dust  mulch  keeps  the  moisture  in  the  loose  sandy  soil.  Cultivation  also 
kills  the  weeds.  Frequent  shallow  cultivation  pays. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


0 


DIGEST 


Proper  methods  of  cultivations  will  make  it  profitable  to  farm  all 
but  the  poorest  of  the  sandy  soils  of  Wisconsin.  The  right  crops, 
proper  fertilization  and  management  are  essential.  One-fifth  of  Wis- 
consin’s area  (6,000,000  acres)  is  classed  as  sandy  loam,  fine  sand 
and  sand.  Pages  3 to  4 

To  improve  sandy  soils,  acidity  must  be  corrected,  humus  added  to 
hold  the  soil  together  and  help  hold  the  moisture,  blowing  stopped, 
and  the  right  fertilizers  added.  Liming  is  often  the  first  step,  since 
it  makes  it  possible  to  grow  crops  of  legumes  which  fail  where  the 
soil  is  acid.  Legumes  and  manure  make  sandy  soils  capable  of  pro- 
ducing more.  Pages  4 to  8 

By  plowing  in  the  spring,  by  planting  windbreaks,  by  growing 
cover  crops,  by  using  a corrugated  roller,  sandy  soils  may  be  protected 
and  improved.  A firm  seed  bed  together  with  thorough  cultivation  to 
conserve  moisture  and  kill  the  weeds  makes  profitable  crops  possible. 

Pages  8 to  11 

Rotations  for  sandy  soils  should  provide  crops  which  build  up  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  Among  the  best  cash  crops  are  soybean  and 
clover  seed.  Potatoes  can  be  grown  when  a good  degree  of  fertility 
has  been  attained.  Hay,  legumes  and  corn  support  livestock.  The 
nurse  crop  is  needed  to  protect  the  sandy  soil  in  the  winter  and 
spring.  Rye  makes  a splendid  nurse  crop  on  sand.  Pages  11  to  15 

Inoculation  plays  an  important  part  in  making  the  crops  of  legumes 
thrive.  The  soil  must  be  sown  with  tiny  bacteria  as  well  as  with  the 
best  seed.  Pages  16  to  17 

Soybeans  should  be  grown  on  at  least  a fourth  of  the  sandy  soil 
farm  each  year.  There  is  a future  in  soybeans  for  Wisconsin. 

Pages  19  to  20 

Alfalfa,  vetch,  buckwheat,  sweet  clover,  serradella,  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  cowpeas,  potatoes,  and  com  are  other  crops  which  require  a 
careful  understanding  when  grown  on  sand.  Garden  crops  do  well. 

Pages  20  to  26 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 

When  the  right  crops  are  grown  and  proper  methods  of  culti- 
vation are  followed,  all  but  the  poorest  sandy  soil  can  be  farmed 
profitably.  Perhaps  the  crop  yields  on  sands  will  not  be  so  high 
as  on  heavier  soils,  but  the  expense  of  tillage  is  less  and  there  is 
less  loss  of  time  in  doing  the  work  on  a sandy  farm. 

One  of  the  greatest  opportunities  to  increase  the  agricultural 
production  of  Wisconsin  lies  in  better  management  of  sandy 
soils, — sowing  the  right  crops,  following  the  proper  methods  of 
tillage,  and  properly  fertilizing  the  fields. 

Kinds  of  Sandy  Soils 

Sandy  soils  are  grouped  into  three  classes : those  simply  called 
sand,  those  classified  as  fine  sand,  and  those  known  as  sandy 
loams.  The  first  class  includes  the  coarsest  sandy  soils  which  it 
it  possible  to  farm  successfully ; the  soils  of  the  second  group  are 
better  because  they  are  finer;  those  of  the  third  are  better  still, 
for  they  contain  more  silt  and  clay.1  Wisconsin  has  more  than 
6,000,000  acres  of  soils  of  these  three  classes,  or  about  one-fifth  of 
her  entire  area. 

The  farmer  on  a sandy  farm  should  know  what  crops  to  grow 
to  provide  a living  and  at  the  same  time  build  up  the  soil  to  the 
desired  fertility. 

Cash  Crops  Necessary 

Two  principles  are  necessary  to  success  in  farming  on  sandy 
lands:  First,  to  maintain  himself  on  his  land  the  farmer  will 
need  to  grow  certain  cash  crops  which  do  not  require  much  fer- 
tilizer nor  make  too  heavy  demands  on  the  soil ; second,  he  must 
grow  legumes  to  build  up  his  soil,  feed  them  to  livestock  and  re- 
turn the  manure. 

Soybeans,  clover  seed,  rye,  potatoes,  and  garden  truck  are 
among  the  cash  crops  which  can  be  grown.  Buckwheat  and  oats 

1 Al]  soils  contain  sand,  silt  and  clay.  The  coarser  particles  are  sand,  the  finest, 
clay,  and  the  intermediate,  silt. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


are  often  grown,  but  they  do  not  pay  as  great  a profit.  Wheat 
and  barley  do  not  grow  well  on  sandy  soil.  Where  market  con- 
ditions are  favorable,  garden  truck  and  small  fruit  are  satisfac- 
tory as  cash  crops  in  combination  with  dairy  farming. 

Ways  to  Improve  Sandy  Soils 

To  increase  the  crop  producing  ability  of  sandy  soils  requires, 
first,  that  blowing  of  sand  be  stopped ; second,  that  possible  aci- 
dity be  corrected  : third,  that  humus  be  added  to  bind  the  soil 
particles  together  and  increase  its  moisture-holding  capacity,  and 
fourth,  that  elements  lacking  in  the  soil  be  supplied  through  ap- 
plication of  proper  fertilizers.  Clover,  alfalfa  and  other  le- 
gumes, either  plowed  under  for  green  manure  or  fed  to  dairy  cat- 
tle and  the  manure  returned  to  the  soil,  will  add  nitrogen  and 
humus.  The  addition  of  nitrogen  phosphate  and  potash  in  some 
of  their  more  available  forms  as  fertilizers  is  frequently  neces- 
sary. 

Liming  Is  First  Step 

Liming  is  the  first  step  in  building  up  both  the  chemical  and 
physical  condition  of  a light,  acid  soil,  because  clover,  alfalfa, 
vetch  and  soybeans,  all  good  crops  for  sandy  soils,  cannot  be  pro- 
fitably grown  on  sour  land.  Liming  of  the  soil  and  inoculating 
with  the  proper  bacteria  are  both  necessary  to  the  successful 
growing  of  legume  crops,  but  liming  comes  first. 

The  practice  of  liming  is  often  condemned  for  not  producing 
results  when  the  cause  of  the  trouble  is  that  the  lime  has  not  been 
used  correctly.  Because  the  degree  of  acidity  or  sourness  in  soils 
varies,  different  amounts  of  lime  may  be  needed  for  different 
filds.  Virgin  or  newly  cleared  lands  are  usually  only  slightly 
acid.  Black  sand  and  sandy  soils  that  have  been  cropped  for  a 
long  time  are  often  very  sour.  Good  results  cannot  be  expected 
if  only  light  applications  of  lime  are  made  on  land  that  needs  a 
heavy  application. 

Acidity  tests  will  determine  how  sour  the  land  is.  These  tests 
are  made  free  of  charge  by  the  Soils  Department,  College  of  Ag- 
riculture, Madison,  and  recommendations  are  given  as  to  the 
amount  of  lime  to  apply.  To  secure  the  best  results  and  to  save 
money  it  is  always  advisable  to  have  the  tests  made. 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


0 


That  lime  is  a great  benefit  to  legume  crops  on  sandy  soil  has 
been  proved  at  the  Sparta  station,  where  a field  of  clover  hay  on 
which  two  tons  of  lime  were  applied  with  manure  yielded  1,110 
pounds  more  than  a field  where  manure  only  was  used.  At  the 
Marinette  county  demonstration  farm  the  yield  of  alfalfa  hay 
was  increased  from  1,820  to  4,160  pounds  by  the  use  of  one  ton 
of  lime.  Two  tons  of  lime  applied  yearly  to  a field  of  soybeans  at 
the  Sparta  station  increased  the  yield  of  soybean  hay  an  average 
of  1,164  pounds  a year. 

Methods  of  Distributing  Lime 

Lime  may  be  applied  as  ground  limestone,  ground  marl, 
ground  shells,  quick  lime,  air-slacked  lime,  or  refuse  lime  (lime 
carbonate)  from  glue  factories,  tanneries,  and  beet  sugar  fac- 
tories. Names  of  dealers  who  supply  lime  carbonate  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Madison. 

Lime  in  any  pulverized  form  may  be  distributed  by  putting 
a thin  layer  over  the  manure  in  the  manure  spreader  and  setting 
the  spreader  at  the  lowest  gear ; by  using  some  form  of  distribu- 
ter especially  adapted  for  spreading  limestone;  or  by  shoveling 
carefully  from  a wmgon  box.  Only  when  the  lime  is  damp  should 
the  last  method  be  used. 

Where  only  quick  lime  is  available,  it  may  be  dumped  into  piles 
of  about  one-half  peck  each,  using  about  1,300  pounds  to  the 
acre.  A little  water  should  be  thrown  on  the  lime  and  the  piles 
then  covered  with  earth.  After  the  lime  slacks,  more  earth  is 
added,  and  the  material  is  spread  with  a shovel.  Another  method 
is  to  slack  the  lime  in  a box  on  a wagon,  and  after  it  is  broken 
into  fine  particles  to  spread  it  broadcast  with  a shovel. 

Ordinarily,  lime  should  be  applied  in  the  fall,  preceding  the 
spring  seeding  to  clover.  Considerable  time  is  necessary  for  the 
lime  to  act  on  the  acid  condition  of  the  soil.  Ground  limestone 
may  be  applied  to  growing  crops  but  lump  lime  cannot  be  ap- 
plied safely  in  late  spring  because  its  caustic  action  may  kill  the 
young  growth.  No  matter  in  what  form  lime  is  used  it  should 
always  be  applied  as  a top-dressing'and  disked  in.  If  plowed  un- 
der it  is  carried  downward  in  the  soil  very  rapidly  and  is  less  ef- 
fective in  neutralizing  the  acidity  of  the  soil. 

Unleached  wood  ashes  are  another  source  of  carbonates  that 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


neutralize  soil  acidity.  They  also  add  potash  in  a very  available 
form.  One  thousand  to  2,000  pounds  an  acre  may  be  applied 
to  light,  sandy  soils. 

Add  Organic  Matter  (Humus) 

Humus  is  added  to  the  soil  to  aid  plant  growth.  It  lightens  the 
soil,  makes  it  hold  more  moisture,  keeps  it  in  a workable  condi- 


FIG.  1.— THE  RESULT  OF  SEEDING  RYE  LATE 

Late  seeded  rye  makes  a poor  cover  crop.  Compare  this  field  of  rye  with  Figure  6 where 
the  rye  in  both  fields  was  seeded  early. 


tion,  tends  to  hold  its  particles  together,  and  helps  in  the  chemi- 
cal processes  which  make  the  elements  in  the  soil  available  to  the 
plant  for  food.  Humus  is  organic  matter,  or  matter  which  was 
once  alive  and  growing,  in  contrast  to  mineral  matter,  such  as 
phosphate  rock.  Manure  and  the  straw  or  stalks,  when  plowed 
under,  add  humus  to  the  soil. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  the  raising  of  legumes  benefits  the 
soil  by  increasing  the  humus  and  by  supplying  the  soil  with  ni- 
trogen. Other  crops  such  as  rye,  buckwheat,  and  millet  will  also 
increase  the  humus  if  plowed  under  as  green  manure,  but  to  a 
much  less  degree  because  of  their  smaller  root  systems.  Neither 
do  they  benefit  the  soil  by  adding  nitrogen. 

The  nitrogen  and  humus  necessary  to  soil  fertility  are  main- 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


7 


tained  only  where  the  crops  are  plowed  under  frequently,  or 
where  they  are  fed  and  the  manure  returned  to  the  soil.  Fur- 
thermore, legume  crops  alone  do  not  add  phosphorus,  potash 
or  lime  to  the  soil.  Manure  or  commercial  fertilizers  are,  there- 
fore, necessary  to  supply  these  plant  food  elements. 

Legumes  As  Green  Manure 

The  value  of  a crop  as  green  manure  is  closely  related  to  the 
fineness  of  the  stalk  and  root  system,  the  place  of  the  root  system 
in  the  soil,  and  its  relation  to  lime.  A shallow,  much-branched 
root  system  supplies  a great  deal  of  humus  near  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  Plants  that  are  heavy  feeders  on  lime  are  best  suited  to 
precede  a planting  of  corn. 

To  determine  the  value  of  different  legume  crops  in  supplying 
humus  and  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  a test  was  carried  on  at  both  the 
Sparta  and  Ellis  Junction  farms.  The  experiments  emphasized 
the  need  for  growing  considerable  clover  on  sandy  land. 


Table  I. — The  Value  of  Legume  Crops  for  Green  Manure 


Preceding  legume  crop 

Yield  of  corn  following  legume 

At  Ellis  Junction 

At  Sparta 

Bu.  an  acre 

Bu.  an  acre 

Clover  

62 

42 

Alfalfa  

53 

Serradella  

44 

45 

Soybeans  

40 

26 

Vetch  

38 

21 

Cowpeas  

32 

24 

Lupine  

33 

20 

No  legume  

30 

6 

The  amount  of  green  material  turned  under  varied  slightly. 
The  table  shows  that  clover  is  the  best  cropt  for  building  up  the 
soil,  with  serradella  a close  second.  Alfalfa  ranks  high,  but  it  is 
a difficult  crop  to  grow  on  the  poorer  sandy  soils.  Soybeans  do 
not  give  as  good  results  for  a green  manuring  crop  as  clover  or 
serradella.  Cowpeas,  lupines,  and  vetch  cannot  be  strongly  rec- 
ommended. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


Use  of  Manure  on  Sandy  Soils 

Stable  manure  will  always  be  the  chief  fertilizer  used  on  farms 
on  which  much  stock  is  kept,  even  though  it  is  necessary  to  sup- 
plement it  with  phosphates  and  other  fertilizers  in  order  to  get 
the  best  results.  All  manure  produced  should  be  very  carefully 
preserved  and  its  use  studied  in  order  to  get  the  best  results.  One 
of  the  best  places  to  use  manure  on  sandy  soils  is  on  the  legume 
crop,  especially  clover.  When  applied  on  corn  or  potatoes  and 
plowed  under  early,  there  is  often  some  loss  by  leaching  before 
these  crops  are  far  enough  advanced  to  absorb  the  fertility  from 
the  manure,  but  when  applied  as  a top-dressing  on  clover,  the 
quick  growth  of  the  clover  absorbs  the  fertility.  However,  it  is 
only  moderate  applications  of  manure  which  should  be  used  in 
this  way.  If  there  is  more  than  necessary  to  give  a light  dressing 
to  the  clover,  it  should  be  used  on  corn  or  other  crops. 

Light  and  frequent  applications  of  manure  give  better  results 
on  sandy  soils  than  heavy  application,  as  there  is  danger  of  loss 
by  leaching  when  heavy  applications  are  made  at  widely  separ- 
ated intervals. 


THE  TILLAGE  AND  PHYSICAL  MANAGEMENT  OF 

SANDY  SOILS 

Spring  Plowing  Best 

On  sandy  soils  underlain  by  sand,  spring  plowing  is  preferred 
to  fall  plowing.  Covering  such  soils  during  the  fall  and  early 
spring  with  a good  growth  prevents  loss  of  plant  food  by  leaching 
and  the  loss  of  the  finer  sand  particles  by  severe  winds.  Seeding 
rye  in  the  corn  rows  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation,  or  in  po- 
tato fields  at  digging  time  will  prevent  much  loss  of  fertility. 

Clover  Best  Cover  Crop 

Bye,  seeded  early  in  the  fall,  will  serve  as  better  protection  for 
the  soil  than  if  seeded  later.  Bye,  however,  has  limitations  as 
a cover  crop.  Severe  windstorms  will  tear  it  up  and  carry  away 
the  sand,  leaving  large  bare  spots  in  the  field. 

Packing  the  soil  with  a corrugated  roller  and  listing  corn  are 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


9 


effective  in  helping  to  stop  blowing.  The  cheapest  and  most 
profitable  way  of  handling  the  blowing  problem  on  sandy  soil  is 
to  grow  clover.  It  acts  as  a cover  crop  ; it  increases  the  fertility ; 
it  supplies  humus  which  binds  the  soil  particles  together  and  in- 
creases the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil.  With  clover  to 
hold  the  soil  in  place  and  a windbreak  of  jack  pine  and  scrub 
oak  to  stop  the  wind,  the  blowing  problem  can  be  overcome. 


MG.  2.— CLOVER.  HOLDS  THE  SOIL. 

Cover  crops  prove  their  value  on  soils  having  a,  tendency  to  blow.  Clover  will  prevent 
blowing,  improve  the  soil  and  produce  a hay  crop. 


Protect  Fields  by  Planting  Windbreaks 

Originally  nature,  through  a forest  and  vegetative  covering, 
protected  these  loose  sands  against  severe  winds.  Man  removed 
the  forest  covering  to  secure  the  land,  and  later,  by  constant  crop- 
ping and  removal  of  crops,  removed  the  organic  matteT  which 
bound  these  soils  together.  This  process  has  continued  until 
many  acres  are  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  winds.  This  trouble  is 
increasing,  for  with  the  removal  of  the  forests,  winds  are  being 
obstructed  less  and  less,  and  sandstorms  are  more  severe  and  of 
more  frequent  occurrence  each  year.  Farmers  who  live  in  the 
sandy  soil  regions  agree  that  each  spring’s  sandstorm  is  worse 
than  preceding  ones. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


The  remedy  is  to  study  and  follow  nature.  On  lands  which  are 
very  low  in  fertility  and  which  cannot  be  brought  back  under  cul- 
tivation new  forests  should  be  started,  the  usual  practice  in  Euro- 
pean countries.  Even  on  farms  which  are  cultivated  it  is  advis- 
able to  plant  a windbreak  around  all  fields.  When  new  land  is 
cleared  it  is  well  to  leave  a windbreak  a rod  or  two  wide.  How- 
ever, windbreaks  alone  will  not  prove  effective  but  should  be 
used  in  connection  with  a system  of  cover  crops  which  actually 
hold  and  bind  the  sand  particles  together. 

Firm  Seed  Bed  Desirable 

A roller  which  leaves  the  surface  of  the  ground  smooth  is  used 
in  many  localities  to  make  firm  the  seed  bed.  This  tool  is  ob- 
jectionable because  it  leaves  the  ground  in  a condition  that  offers 

less  resistance  to  the  wind, 
and  evaporation  of  moisture 
will  take  place  more  rapidly 
than  where  a mulch  covers 
the  soil.  These  objections, 
however,  may  be  overcome 
if  a light  harrow  is  used 
after  the  roller  to  roughen 
the  surface. 

A combination  corrugated 
roller  and  pulverizer  now  on 
the  market  packs  the  surface 
and  at  the  same  time  leaves 
it  very  rough,  thus  stopping 
the  blowing.  This  type  of  roller  has  been  used  successfully  on 
sandy  soils  in  producing  better  stands  and  larger  yields.  At 
the  Sparta  station,  the  yield  of  clover  hay  was  increased  610 
pounds  to  the  acre  by  its  use. 

Cultivate  to  Save  Moisture  and  Kill  Weeds 

All  of  the  soil  water  comes  through  rain  or  snow  fall.  Of 
course,  more  rain  falls  during  a season  than  is  needed  by  crops, 
but  it  is  not  evenly  distributed  and  often  does  not  come  when 
most  needed.  Sandy  soils  are  naturally  quite  loose  and  open,  thus 
permitting  the  rapid  circulation  of  air,  which  causes  considerable 
loss  of  moisture  through  evaporation.  The  size  of  the  crop  is 


fig.  3.— a corrugated  roller 

Properly  used,  this  implement  helps  in 
raising  profitable  crops  on  sandy  soils. 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


11 


often  limited  by  the  lack  of  moisture,  particularly  at  the  time 
when  the  seeds  germinate. 

To  conserve  and  hold  for  later  use  the  moisture  gained  by 
the  heavy  spring  rains,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a dirt  mulch  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  This  is  done  by  cultivating. 

Harrowing  every  ten  days,  or  after  every  rain  in  the  growing 
season,  will  keep  such  a mulch  and  conserve  much  of  the  moisture. 
A light  drag  or  weeder  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  same 
tools  may  also  be  used  with  good  results  on  such  crops  as  oats, 
com,  rye,  and  potatoes,  after  they  are  four  or  five  inches  above 
the  ground. 

Another  purpose  in  cultivating  is  to  kill  weeds.  Timely  cul- 
tivation also  hastens  the  warming  of  the  soil,  especially  after 
heavy,  cold  rains. 


CROPS  AND  ROTATIONS  FOR  SANDY  SOILS 

0slow  Lsauata 

Crops  to  Increase  Humus 

Rotations  for  sandy  soils  should  be  so  chosen  as  to  increase 
the  amount  of  vegetable  matter  and  provide  a legume  crop  to 
cover  the  soil  at  least  once  every  three  years. 

The  adoption  of  a system  of  rotation  ordinarily  depends  upon 
the  following  factors:  (a)  the  type  of  soil;  (b)  the  location  re- 
garding the  temperature  and  rainfall;  (c)  the  market  facilities; 
(d)  the  farmer’s  preference  as  to  kind  of  crop  and  acreage  of 
cereal,  grass  and  cultivated  crops  to  be  grown;  and  (e)  the 
fertility  of  the  soil. 

Due  to  the  wide  distribution  of  sandy  soils  in  this  state,  and 
the  different  conditions  and  prejudices  in  each  locality,  it  is  im- 
possible to  recommend  a form  of  rotation  for  universal  adoption. 
The  one  important  fact,  however,  that  all  sandy  soils  are  low  in 
fertility  and  especially  in  nitrogen,  generally  holds.  The  acre- 
age of  grasses,  cereals,  and  cultivated  crops  should  be  chosen 
with  this  fact  in  mind,  understanding  thoroughly  that  the  nitro- 
gen supply  will  depend  on  the  growing  and  handling  of  legumes. 

Suggested  Rotation  for  Sandy  Land 

The  following  rotation  is  probably  the  best  for  most  forms  of 
sandy  soil : 

First  year — clover  with  perhaps  a light  seeding  of  rye. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


Medium  Red  Clover 

PIG.  4. — CLOVER  IS  THE  BEST  SANDY  SOIL  CROP 

Mammoth  red  clover  yields  better  than  medium  red  clover  on  these  light  soils.  Clover 
must  be  the  main  crop  on  sandy  soils. 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


13 


Second  year — clover  for  hay,  leaving  the  second  crop  to  be 
turned  under  either  in  the  fall  or  spring. 

Third  year — corn  or  potatoes. 

Fourth  year — soybeans,  which  may  be  used  for  seed,  for  hay, 
and  for  green  manuring. 

If  any  other  crops  are  to  be  grown,  they  may  be  planted  fol- 
lowing clover,  thus  limiting  the  quantity  of  the  other  crops 
named. 

Once  in  effect,  this  rotation  will  permit  the  purchase  and  feed- 
ing of  more  livestock,  which  is  the  next  step  in  making  farming 
more  profitable  on  light  soils.  If  more  livestock  is  purchased 
and  the  feed  grown  is  fed  on  the  farm  instead  of  being  sold,  the 
returns  will  be  more  certain  and  there  will  be  fewer  crop  failures. 
By  returning  in  the  form  of  manure  all  crops  grown,  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  is  maintained  and  sometimes  increased,  especially  if 
additional  feeds  are  purchased,  as  on  dairy  farms.  Thus,  larger 
crops,  a more  regular  income,  a growing  bank  account,  a better 
and  more  equitable  distribution  of  labor,  and  a more  permanent 
agriculture  are  assured. 

Mammoth  Clover  Best  on  Light  Sandy  Soils 

Mammoth  clover  does  better  on  light  soils  than  medium  red 
clover,  for  it  is  more  hardy  and  a more  vigorous  grower,  being 
able  to  secure  its  plant  food  more  readily.  It  grows  to  about  the 
same  size  on  sandy  soils  as  medium  red  clover  does  on  heavy  soils. 

It  is  better  to  seed  from  six  to  eight  quarts  of  seed  to  the 
acre  on  the  poorer  soils ; a large  portion  of  the  seed  may  fail  to 
grow  because  of  lack  of  moisture  and  available  plant  food.  The 
better  the  soil  the  less  seed  needed.  A drill  is  better  than  a 
broadcast  seeder  because  the  seed  can  be  planted  from  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  a half  deep  to  secure  more  moisture.  On  clay  soils 
or  where  clay  and  silt  are  mixed  with  sand,  more  shallow  plant- 
ing is  advisable. 

Seeding  of  clover  the  last  week  in  April  or  first  week  in  May 
is  preferable  to  seeding  in  June  or  July,  because  there  is  at  this 
time  more  moisture  in  the  soil  to  start  the  young  plant.  When 
the  dry  weather  comes,  the  root  system  of  the  plant  is  developed 
so  that  it  is  better  able  to  secure  water.  Furthermore,  clover 
grows  very  slowly  in  these  soils  and  when  seeded  late  does  not 
grow  fast  enough  to  protect  itself  over  winter.  When  it  is 
planted  late  in  the  season  or  when  for  some  reason  it  does  not 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


make  a good  growth,  a top  dressing  of  straw  should  be  applied  in 
the  fall  to  prevent  winterkilling. 

Sometimes  Advisable  to  Use  a Nurse  Crop 

Sandy  soils  should  always  be  protected  by  a cover  crop  over 
winter,  and,  where  possible,  in  the  spring. 

On  fields  unprotected  by  windbreaks  and  subject  to  severe 
winds  a nurse  crop  for  clover  may  be  necessary.  This  nurse 
crop  should  be  seeded  as  lightly  as  possible,  not  planted  with  the 
idea  of  securing  a large  crop.  Many  failures  of  clover  can  be 
attributed  to  seeding  a heavy  nurse  crop  which  takes  too  much 
moisture  and  plant  food  away  from  the  young  clover  plant.  An- 
other objection  to  the  heavy  nurse  crop  is  that  it  shades  the  clover 
too  much.  When  the  grain  is  cut  in  July  or  August,  the  hot 
sun  may  kill  the  clover  in  one  or  two  days  because  it  cannot 
stand  the  sudden  change  to  intense  heat  and  sunlight.  It  is  much 
better  to  plant  oats  or  rye  in  small  quantities,  cut  it  with  a 
mower  when  hot,  dry  weather  comes,  and  let  it  lie  on  the  field  as 
a protecting  covering  to  the  tender  clover  plant. 

Even  where  no  nurse  crop  is  planted  weeds  will  serve  as  shel- 
ter and,  when  cut,  act  as  mulch  and  as  shade  to  the  young  clover 
plants.  Later  in  the  season  all  weeds  should  remain  on  the  field 
to  help  hold  the  snow  and  protect  the  plants  from  the  cold  during 
the  winter. 

Many  farmers  prefer  to  seed  clover  in  fall-sown  rye.  There 
is  no  objection  to  this  method  providing  the  field  is  inoculated, 
limed,  manured  as  directed,  and  the  rye  disked  in  early  in  the 
spring  so  as  to  reduce  the  stand  or  amount  of  the  nurse  crop. 
The  disk,  when  set  in  one  or  two  notches,  will  not  injure  the  rye 
seriously.  It  will  come  up  again  very  readily.  Clover  may  be 
seeded  in  the  rye  field  before  or  after  it  is  disked. 

Plow  Under  or  Cut  Clover  For  Hay  ? 

Ordinarily  the  roots  of  clover  or  alfalfa  contain  only  about 
one-quarter  or  one-third  as  much  vegetable  matter  and  nitrogen 
as  is  contained  in  the  plant  above  ground.  When,  therefore,  it 
is  desired  that  a considerable  increase  in  humus  and  in  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  be  made,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  under  the  whole 
crop.  In  improving  extremely  sandy  soils  that  have  been  ex- 
hausted by  a considerable  period  of  cropping,  it  should  be  rec- 
ognized that  if  any  rapid  improvement  is  to  be  made  it  will  be 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


15 


necessary  to  turn  under  practically  the  entire  crop  of  legumes 
even  if  by  so  doing  the  use  of  the  land  seems  to  be  lost  for  one 
or  two  years. 

As  about  two-thirds  of  the  organic  matter  in  feed  is  decom- 
posed in  the  animal,  nearly  three  times  as  much  humus  will  be 
added  by  turning  under  a crop  of  clover  as  from  using  the  man- 
ure which  would  result  from  feeding  it. 

After  such  lands  have  been  brought  to  a fairly  good  condition 
of  fertility,  it  will  be  practicable  to  maintain  their  nitrogen  and 
humus  supply  by  the  growth  of  legumes  in  short  rotation.  This 
is  the  case  even  when  the  clover  or  other  legume  is  cut  for  feed, 
provided  the  manure  coming  from  such  feeding  is  returned  with- 
out loss  to  the  soil.  It  may  be  necessary  to  add  the  other  ele- 
ments, phosphorus  and  potash,  in  reasonable  amounts  from  time 
to  time,  since  there  is  a gradual  and  unavoidable  loss  of  these 
elements  through  leaching  in  the  soil  and  in  the  management  of 
the  manure. 


TO  GROW  CLOVER  SUCCES  SFULLY  ON  LIGHT  SANDY 

SOILS 

It  Is  Necessary 

To  plow  and  disk  thoroughly. 

To  compact  the  soil  with  a corrugated  roller. 

To  have  the  proper  bacteria  present. 

To  use  lime  on  acid  soils. 

To  apply  a light  top-dressing  of  manure. 

To  seed  rather  deeply  (about  iy2  inches). 

To  seed,  preferably,  early  in  spring. 

To  use  either  no  nurse  crop  or  a light  nurse  crop. 

To  cut  and  leave  weeds  or  nurse  crop  on  field  to  pro- 
tect clover  from  sun. 

To  apply  a light  dressing  of  straw  in  fall  to  prevent 
freezing. 


Alsike  Clover  on  Sand 

Alsike  clover  is  longer-lived  than  either  the  medium  red  or 
mammoth  varieties  and  is  frequently  left  from' three  to  five  years 
on  quite  fertile  soil.  Its  root-system  forms  very  close  to  the 
surface,  and  the  plant  is  thus  well  adapted  to  damp  soils.  Sand 
and  light  sandy  loam  which  dry  out  severely  at  the  surface  have 
no  great  supply  of  fertility  in  the  surface  layer,  and  are  not  at 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


all  suitable  for  this  plant.  Although  it  has  the  advantage  of  be- 
ing less  sensitive  to  acid  conditions,  it  cannot  be  recommended  as 
a suitable  crop  for  sandy  soils. 


On  poor  sandy  soils,  where  it  has  been  impossible  to  grow 
clover  for  several  years,  it  is  necessary  to  inoculate  the  soil ; that 
is,  to  add  the  bacteria  which  live  on  the  roots  of  the  clover  plant 
and  take  nitrogen  from  the  air.  This  must  also  be  done  when 
alfalfa,  soybeans,  or  other  legume  crops  are  grown  for  the  first 
time.  The  bacteria  which  live  on  the  roots  of  clover  may  have 


development  of  nodules.  The  value  of  the  inoculation  will  de- 
pend on  the  amount  of  inoculating  soil  and  the  thoroughness  of 
its  mixture  with  the  ground. 

Where  such  soil  is  readily  accessible,  with  only  the  cost  of  a 
short  haul,  it  is  best  to  use  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  to  the  acre. 
About  half  as  much  will  produce  good  results  if  the  soil  is  kept  in 
moist  condition.  In  securing  the  soil,  reject  one  or  two  inches  of 
surface  soil  as  the  sun  may  have  killed  the  germs  present.  It 
is  also  advisable  to  cover  the  soil  with  moist  burlap  sacks  to  pre- 
vent its  drying  out  and  to  protect  it  from  the  sun.  It  is  better 
to  apply  this  soil  on  the  field  to  be  inoculated  just  before  seeding, 
and  then  disk  or  drag  it  in  immediately.  An  old-fashioned 
broadcast  seeder  or  a lime  spreader  or  manure  spreader  may  be 
used  to  apply  the  soil,  or  a drag  may  be  hitched  to  the  rear  end 


Inoculate  for  Clover  and  Other  Legumes 


been  present  in  these  soils 
but  because  clover  has  not 


— V,,  

' marking  the  line  between  suc- 
cess and  failure. 


been  grown  for  some  time 
they  have  disappeared.  Under 
these  conditions  inoculation 
is  very  important,  often 


The  soil  method  of  inocu- 


FIG.  5.— WHAT  INOCULATION  DOES 


lation  is  old  and  reliable. 
Ordinarily  it  is  done  by  scat- 
tering over  the  field  soil  on 
which  red  clover  has  been 


Bacteria  make  the  difference  in  these  two 
crops  of  clover 


two  previously  grown,  and  the 
roots  of  which  show  a good 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


17 


of  a wagon  and  the  soil  spread  by  hand  just  in  front  of  the  drag. 
It  is  very  essential  to  cover  the  soil  applied  to  protect  the  bac- 
teria from  the  sun. 

Commercial  cultures  are  sometimes  used  for  inoculating  pur- 
poses, but  with  small  seeds  like  clover  and  alfalfa,  they  have  not 
always  proved  successful.  In  order  to  insure  thorough  inocula- 
tion it  may  sometimes  be  advisable  to  use  both  soil  and  culture, 
for  upon  inoculation  largely  depends  the  success  or  failure  of  all 
legume  crops. 

Rye  on  Sandy  Soils 

Of  non-legume  crops  for  sandy  soils,  rye  is  probably  the  best. 
It  grows  as  well  on  acid  as  on  non-acid  soil  and  is  much  better 
adapted  to  sand  than  are  wheat,  oats,  and  barley.  It  withstands 
dry  weather  well.  Spring  rye  cannot  be  recommended  as  it  does 
not  make  a very  good  growth. 

Early  fall  seeding  of  rye  is  preferable  to  late  seeding,  for  it 
makes  a better  cover  crop,  it  takes  up  more  of  the  available  plant 
food  that  might  otherwise  be  lost,  and  it  prevents  washing  dur- 
ing the  fall  and  early  spring.  In  the  spring,  rye  many  be  used 
as  a pasture,  or  it  may  be  used  as  a soiling  crop.  Often  it  proves 
valuable  as  a green  manuring  crop  to  plow  under.  Because 
other  grain  crops  do  not  grow  well  on  sandy  soils  rye  is  always 
relied  on  for  the  yearly  supply  of  straw  for  bedding  purposes. 

The  soil  is  not  prepared,  as  a general  rule,  for  the  seeding  of 
rye,  for  it  seems  to  be  a catch  crop  and  grows  well  in  spite  of 
the  haphazard  method  of  seeding.  Very  often  it  is  seeded  at  the 
time  of  the  last  cultivation  of  corn  or  at  the  time  of  digging  po- 
tatoes, while  in  other  cases  the  corn  field  is  disked  after  harvest- 
ing and  the  rye  planted.  These  methods  give  fairly  good  results, 
but  it  is  advisable  to  prepare  the  land  the  same  as  for  other  crops 
to  secure  a large  yield.  Disking  or  rolling  fall-sown  rye  in  the 
spring  has  materially  increased  the  yield  in  several  tests  carried 
on  at  different  places  in  the  state.  The  corrugated  roller  or  pack- 
er is  very  efficient  for  this  purpose. 

Rye  is  good  for  a cover  crop,  but  it  may  be  torn  up  by  wind- 
storms because  it  lacks  the  large  root  system  of  the  legumes.  An 
early  seeding  makes  a better  cover  crop  than  a late  seeding. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


Rye  Following  Rye 


Rye  Following  a Legume 


FIG.  6.— TWO  CROPS  OF  RYE  ON  SAND 

Rye  following  rye  produced  6 bushels  an  acre, — rye  following  a legume  threshed  15 
bushels  an  acre.  Soybeans  were  plowed  under  the  previous  year.  The  rye  needs  to  be 
seeded  early.  (See  Figure  1.) 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them  19 

Soybeans  on  Sand 

The  soybean,  though  a southern  forage  crop,  is  more  resistant 
to  frost  than  corn,  cowpeas,  or  beans.  Varieities  have  been  de- 
veloped which  will  grow  in  any  region  where  corn  will  mature. 
The  varieties  adapted  to  Wisconsin  conditions  are : Wisconsin 

Black,  Ito  San  and  Medium  Early  Green. 

The  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  should  be  about  the  same  as 
for  corn.  The  seed  may  either  be  broadcasted  or  drilled  in  rows 
from  18  inches  to  3 feet  apart. 

The  amount  of  seed  required,  when  planted  for  seed  produc- 
tion, will  vary  from  one-third  to  one-half  bushel  to  the  acre. 
When  planted  in  drills  for  hay  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  a 
bushel  should  be  used,  the  rows  being  placed  18  to  24  inches 
apart.  If  planted  in  solid  drills,  one  bushel  or  more  will  be 
needed. 

Seedings  should  be  made  when  there  is  no  more  danger  of  frost, 
because  a setback  due  to  cold  weather  is  not  easily  overcome.  The 
crop  requires  a growing  period  of  at  least  two  months  to  be  pro- 
fitable for  forage  or  green  manure,  but  if  raised  for  seed  it 
should  be  put  in  not  later  than  the  end  of  May.  The  seed  should 
be  covered  with  at  least  an  inch  of  soil  and  in  a very  dry  season 
it  is  best  to  seed  still  deeper. 

On  soil  where  soybeans  have  not  been  grown  it  is  necessary  to 
inoculate  if  the  largest  and  most  profitable  crop  is  to  be  har- 
vested. Especially  is  this  true  on  sandy  soil.  Inoculation  makes 
it  possible  for  the  soybean  to  take  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and 
place  it  in  the  soil.  While  adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  the  plant 
is  growing  more  luxuriantly  and  making  a more  profitable  crop. 
A pure  ciilture  or  soil  from  a field  where  soybeans  have  been 
grown  may  be  used  to  inoculate  the  seed.* 

If  grown  for  forage,  the  crop  should  be  cut  when  the  pods  are 
starting  to  form  and  should  be  cured  like  alfalfa  hay.  It  re- 
quires a little  more  time,  however,  because  the  stems  are  coarser. 
Or  soybeans  may  be  grown  between  rows  of  corn  and  plowed  un- 
der for  green  manuring  purposes  or  harvested  with  the  corn  and 
placed  in  the  silo,  increasing  the  feeding  value  of  the  silage.  In 
the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Wisconsin  soybeans  can  be 
planted  after  harvesting  a crop  of  rye  and  can  be  plowed  under 
in  the  fall  as  a green  manuring  crop  to  enrich  the  soil  in  humus 
and  nitrogen. 


* Write  for  circulars  on  Soybeans  and  Inoculation  which  are  distributed  free  by  the 
Experiment  Station,  Madison. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


To  secure  the  most  satisfactory  growth  of  soybeans,  lime  should 
be  added  to  the  soil.  No  other  crop  except  clover  or  alfalfa  is 
adapted  to  such  a variety  of  uses,  and  the  soybean  has  the  added 
advantage  of  sale  as  a cash  crop  without  removing  the  plant  ma- 
terial from  the  soil.  It  can  be  grown  for  seed;  it  is  often  used 
for  silage  with  corn  in  the  proportion  of  one  load  of  soybeans  to 
three  or  four  of  corn ; it  makes  excellent  hay  for  all  stock ; the 
seed  is  ground  for  a concentrated  feed  similar  to  oil  or  cotton- 
seed-meal ; the  price  of  the  seed  when  sold  is  high  enough  to  net 
a fairly  large  income.  Furthermore,  it  is  very  well  adapted  to 
most  of  the  poor  sandy  soils  in  central  Wisconsin  and  will  grow 
fairly  well  without  special  treatment. 

Best  to  Grow  Large  Soybean  Acreage 

Every  farmer  who  cultivates  poor  sandy  soil  should  plant  from 
one-fourth  to  one-third  of  his  whole  farm  to  soybeans.  About 
one-third  of  the  total  acreage  planted  may  be  harvested  for  seed. 
A portion,  as  much  as  the  farmer  can  afford,  may  be  plowed 
under  for  green  manure  and  seeded  to  rye  to  prepare  the  field 
for  growing  mammoth  clover  the  following  year,  and  the  re- 
mainder may  be  used  for  hay  or  silage. 

Farmers  frequently  object  to  purchasing  sufficient  soybean 
seed  to  plant  so  large  an  acreage,  but  a man  can  easily  afford  to 
sell  the  rye  or  potato  seed  which  he  has  on  hand  and  buy  soybean 
seed,  for  it  takes  only  20  pounds  of  soybeans  to  an  acre  when 
they  are  planted  in  rows  two  feet  apart. 

Another  third  of  the  farm  may  be  planted  to  corn,  rye,  and 
potatoes,  but  the  acreage  of  these  crops  should  be  limited  as  much 
- as  is  consistent  with  the  money  a farmer  has  and  the  quality  of 
the  soil.  On  the  more  fertile  or  newer  sandy  soils  they  may  be 
grown  extensively  with  profit  and  without  material  loss  of  fer- 
tility, providing  a good  rotation  including  legume  crops  is  used 
and  an  adequate  return  in  the  form  of  fertilizers  is  made.  On 
the  poorer  soils,  legumes  should  be  grown  as  extensively  as  pos- 
sible in  order  to  build  up  the  soil  and  to  permit  the  farmer  to 
grow  more  and  larger  crops  of  corn  and  potatoes  later. 

As  large  an  acreage  of  clover  as  the  supply  of  manure  and 
lime  will  permit  should  be  planted  on  the  remaining  portion  of 
the  farm.  Clover  will  grow,  but  starting  it  needs  special  atten- 
tion, and  it  is  wasteful  of  time  and  money  to  plant  clover  in  the 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


21 


ordinary  way  on  much  of  the  light  soil  of  Wisconsin.  One  ton 
of  clover  (dry  basis)  plowed  under  is  worth  as  much  as  five  tons 
of  manure  in  increasing  crop  yields,  a fact  which  should  empha- 
size the  necessity  for  growing  as  much  clover  as  the  supply  of 
manure  and  the  means  for  purchasing  lime  will  permit.  Great 
care  is  necessary  to  grow  a successful  crop  on  soils  very  low  in 
fertility,  but  on  the  better  sandy  soils  it  may  be  grown  without 
difficulty  and  form  the  basis  for  maintaining  soil  fertility. 

Vetch  on  Sandy  Soils 

There  are  two  distinct  varieties  of  vetch,  the  spring  vetch  or 
tare,  and  the  sand,  winter,  or  hairy  vetch.  Both  varieties  are 
annuals.  The  spring  vetch  when  used  for  forage  is  generally 
seeded  with  oats  because  it  has  a trailing  habit  and  needs  some 
support.  When  seeded  for  green  manuring  purposes  it  should 
be  drilled  about  two  inches  deep  early  in  spring  at  the  rate  of  30 
pounds  to  the  acre.  The  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  should  be 
about  the  same  as  for  clover.  It  is  very  important  that  the  seed 
should  be  covered  and  the  soil  compacted  with  a roller. 

Sand,  winter,  or  hairy  vetch  is  seeded  in  late  summer  or  very 
early  fall,  earlier  than  either  fall  rye  or  wheat  is  seeded.  If 
seeded  late  it  will  winterkill  severely.  If  used  for  green  manur- 
ing it  may  be  planted  between  rows  of  corn  at  the  last  cultivation. 
It  may  be  seeded  with  rye  in  the  fall  and  serve  as  a cover  crop 
over  winter,  and  at  the  same  time  help  to  build  up  the  nitrogen 
supply  in  the  soil. 

Neither  spring  nor  fall  vetch  will  be  successful  on  acid  sandy 
soils  without  the  use  of  lime.  Fall  vetch  should  preferably  be 
used  in  the  rotation  with  rye  on  fields  where  lime  is  used  in  the 
production  of  clover  hay.  To  secure  the  best  crops  of  vetch 
where  the  field  has  been  limed,  the  soil  may  be  inoculated,  either 
by  the  soil  or  the  commercial  culture  method. 

Garden  and  Truck  Crops  on  Sandy  Soils 

Due  to  the  earliness  and  the  ease  with  which  light  soils  are  cul- 
tivated they  are  especially  adapted  to  the  growing  of  truck  and 
garden  crops.  Small  fruit  crops  grow  very  well,  providing  suf- 
ficient fertility  is  added.  Tomatoes,  watermelons,  canteloupes, 
lettuce  and  radishes  are  most  tender  and  palatable  when  grown 
on  sand. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


To  secure  the  best  results  with  these  crops  they  should  be 
grown  in  rotation  with  clover,  rather  than  growing  them  to  the 
same  field  every  year  and  depending  on  heavy  applications  of 
manure  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  fertility.  By  rotating  with 
clover  many  insect  enemies  and  fungous  diseases  are  killed.  To 
produce  a good  crop  in  this  rotation  manure  should  be  applied 
to  the  clover.  The  first  crop  of  clover  may  be  cut  and  the  second 
plowed  under.  The  following  season  a commercial  fertilizer  of 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potash  may  be  applied  either  with  an- 
other light  application  of  manure  or  alone. 

The  composition  of  the  fertilizer  will  depend  largely  on  the 
soil.  Nitrogen  fertilizers  should  be  applied  several  times  during 
the  growing  season,  making  small  applications  each  time  to  avoid 
loss. 

Where  market  conditions  are  favorable,  truck  farming  and 
small-fruit  raising  will  prove  profitable  on  sandy  soils,  but  they 
should  usually  be  side  issues  with  dairy  farming.  Dairying  will 
insure  a steady  income  and  a supply  of  manure  for  maintaining 
crop  production.  Where  manure  can  be  bought  at  a reasonable 
price,  however,  dairy  farming  with  truck  farming  it  not  neces- 
sary. 

Alfalfa  on  Sandy  Soils 

Alfalfa  on  the  poorer  sandy  soils  cannot  be  recommended  very 
strongly  for  it  does  not  seem  to  produce  as  much  hay  or  benefit 
the  soil  as  much  as  mammoth  clover.  On  the  better  and  more 
fertile  sandy  soils  it  makes  an  excellent  growth  and  produces  a 
fairly  large  amount  of  hay  of  high  feeding  value.  Larger  appli- 
cations of  lime  are  needed  for  alfalfa  than  for  clover. 

Tests  with  Grimm  alfalfa  during  the  last  two  years  have  in- 
dicated that  it  is  best  adapted  to  the  poorer  soil.  It  is  more 
hardy,  withstands  our  severe  winters  better,  and  makes  a much 
more  rapid  growth  in  spring  and  after  each  cutting  than  the 
common  alfalfa.  The  principal  objection  to  planting  Grimm  al- 
falfa has  been  the  high  price  of  the  seed. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  and  the  manner  and  time  of  seed- 
ing are  essentially  the  same  as  for  clover  except  that  the  field 
should  be  inoculated  with  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  or  sweet  clover 
field.  About  20  pounds  of  seed  should  be  used  to  the  acre  and 
the  first  year  the  crop  should  be  treated  the  same  as  clover.  The 
next  year  it  may  be  cut  for  forage  two  or  three  times. 


I 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them  23 

If  the  soil  is  very  low  in  fertility  it  is  well  to  apply  manure 
and  about  250  pounds  of  bone-meal  and  100  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash  to  an  acre  in  the  fall  of  the  second  year  to  help  the  next 
year’s  stand,  which  may  not  feel  the  effect  of  the  first  year’s  ap- 
plication of  manure.  The  third  year  it  should  be  cropped  the 
same  as  the  second,  only  that  the  last  crop  should  be  plowed  un- 
der, thus  leaving  the  field  in  good  fertile  and  physical  condition 
for  such  cultivated  crops  as  corn  and  potatoes.  The  manure  for 
the  cultivated  crop  may  be  applied  during  the  winter  or  spring. 

Buckwheat  a Poor  Crop  on  Sandy  Soils 

Buckwheat  has  been  grown  extensively  on  the  new  sandy  lands 
of  the  state,  but  it  is  usually  dropped  from  the  rotation  after 
the  land  has  been  cropped  for  a time.  It  requires  considerable 
organic  matter,  such  as  is  found  in  new  soil  or  on  marsh  lands. 
It  also  has  a short  growing  season  and  will  withstand  dry  weather 
or  drought  quite  readily.  At  its  best,  however,  buckwheat  is  a 
poor  crop  to  grow  on  sandy  soils  for  it  is  very  susceptible  to 
frosts  in  the  early  fall  and  to  blight  during  the  blossoming  stage 
in  midsummer.  The  yield  is  usually  small  and  barely  pays  for 
the  cost  of  planting  and  harvesting. 

Buckwheat  is  frequently  recommended  as  a green  manuring 
CTop,  but  experimental  work  has  shown  that  used  thus  it  causes 
severe  damage  to  the  succeeding  crops.  Plowing  under  the 
coarse  buckwheat  straw  results  in  a loose  open  soil  which  dries 
out  readily.  Packing  helps  to  remedy  the  trouble,  but  in  spite 
of  thorough  packing  of  the  soil  injurious  effects  may  still  be  seen 
on  corn  following  the  buckwheat. 

Sweet  Clover  on  Sandy  Soils 

While  sweet  clover  has  made  good  growth  on  some  sandy  soils 
in  the  state,  it  cannot  be  recommended  strongly  at  present.  It 
does  not  benefit  the  soil  so  much  nor  grow  so  well  as  mammoth 
clover,  and  it  is  not  so  valuable  a feed  as  alfalfa.  Once  started 
on  the  field  sweet  clover  grows  more  rapidly  than  alfalfa,  but  the 
difficulty  is  in  securing  a good  stand.  Its  habit  of  growth  on 
roadsides  and  coal  piles  leads  to  the  belief  that  it  will  grow 
readily  under  field  conditions,  but  wherever  sweet  clover  grows 
on  roadsides  there  is  considerable  available  plant  food  and  the 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


soil  is  well  packed — two  conditions  which  seem  essential  to  the 
growth  of  this  plant  and  which  cannot  be  duplicated  very  easily 
under  field  conditions.  Soils  which  are  cropped  and  cultivated 
do  not  have  the  much  needed  fertility  to  grow  sweet  clover  suc- 
cessfully, and  experiments  show  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  grow 
than  other  legume  crops. 

. 

Serradella  for  Green  Manuring 

Serradella  is  an  annual  legume,  which  has  a very  fine  stalk 
and  root-system.  When  well  inoculated,  large  clusters  of  nodules 
form  on  its  roots,  enabling  the  plant  to  fix  large  quantities  of 
nitrogen.  Serradella  is  particularly  valuable  as  a green  manur- 
ing crop,  and  better  than  any  other  annual  legume  fits  the  soils 
for  producing  a larger  yield  of  corn  and  potatoes. 

Serradella  thrives  best  in  a moist,  cool  climate  and  makes  its 
best  growth  in  the  spring  or  early  summer.  It  is  often  grown 
with  a nurse  crop  of  oats  or  rye  and  after  the  crop  is  removed 
used  for  green  manuring  purposes  or  for  pasture.  It  is  as  high 
in  protein  as  alfalfa  and  the  hay  is  finer  and  more  palatable  to 
livestock.  It  is  an  annual  and  must  be  planted  every  year.  In- 
oculation is  necessary,  but  it  does  not  require  lime.  Serradella 
is  to  be  used  in  place  of  clover  only  on  poor,  acid  soil  where 
clover  will  not  grow  without  special  attention,  as  the  yield  of  hay 
is  low. 

Wheat,  Barley,  and  Oats 

Wheat  and  barley  are  not  crops  for  light  sandy  soils,  for  they 
do  not  grow  well.  Oats  grow  somewhat  better,  especially  on  the 
lands  just  cleared,  or  on  sandy  lands  where  the  fertility  has 
been  maintained  by  the  use  of  manure  and  fertilizers.  Wheat  and 
barley  prefer  a non-acid  soil  while  oats  will  grow  as  well  on  an 
acid  as  on  a non-acid  soil.  Oats  are  often  planted  for  a hay  or 
a soiling  crop  on  these  light  soils,  but  like  buckwheat,  they  do  not 
pay  a profit  as  a cash  crop  after  deducting  the  cost  of  planting 
and  harvesting. 

Cowpeas  on  Sandy  Soil 

The  cowpea  is  very  similar  to  the  soybean  except  that  it  is  of 
vine-like  rather  than  upright  habit  of  growth.  It  requires  the 
same  preparation  of  seed  bed,  and  is  seeded,  harvested,  and  ma- 


Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them 


9,F» 


tured  in  the  same  way.  The  hay  is  more  palatable  for  feed  than 
the  soybean,  but  the  seed  contains  a lower  percentage  of  pro- 
tein. 

The  cowpea  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  in 
Wisconsin  as  the  soybean.  It  is  a southern  plant  and  in  hot  sea- 
sons it  grows  very  well.  It  can  also  withstand  drought  quite 
readily.  It  does  not  need  lime  and  will  not  be  benefited  by  an 
application  of  lime,  so  it  is  recommended  on  acid  sandy  lands.  At 
the  present  time,  cowpeas  are  not  as  strongly  advocated  as  soy- 
beans, but  they  can  be  grown  profitably  in  the  state  and  will  net 
a fair  return. 


FIG.  7. — INOCULATION  MAKES  BETTER  CROPS 


The  cowpeas  which  were  inoculated  will  outyield  the  uninoculated  peas  on  the 
other  side  of  the  stake.  Inoculation  means  better  crops  not  only  of  cowpeas  but  of 
clover,  soybeans,  and  other  legumes  as  well. 


Potatoes 

Potatoes  are  most  commonly  grown  on  rather  sandy  soils  be- 
cause of  the  better  quality  resulting  and  the  fact  that  they  are 
clean  when  harvested,  even  though  the  ground  is  rather  damp. 
However,  potato  growing  involves  a considerable  expense  for 
seed  and  labor  and  unless  the  soil  is  sufficiently  fertile  and  has 
enough  water-holding  capacity  to  produce  a fair  crop,  there  is 
little  profit  in  raising  potatoes.  Soils  which  are  classified  as 
medium  sands  are  usually  too  low  in  water-holding  capacity 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  299 


and  in  fertility  to  justify  the  growing  of  crops  which  involve  so 
much  expense  for  labor  and  other  items  as  do  potatoes.  Fine 
sands  and  sandy  loams  when  kept  in  a good  state  of  fertility 
will  usually  produce  a sufficient  crop  of  potatoes  to  justify  grow- 
ing them.  But  the  fertility  should  be  kept  at  a high  stage  to 
make  the  crop  most  profitable. 

Corn 

Corn  should  be  grown  more  extensively  on  sandy  soils.  It 
grows  well  if  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  maintained  and  it  can  be 


fig.  8.— fertilizers  help  on  light  soils 

Commercial  fertilizers  and  manure  play  important  parts  in  the  producing  profitable 
crops  on  sandy  soils.  Phosphorus,  potash,  and  limestone  were  added  for  this  corn 
and  potato  crop. 

used  for  a variety  of  purposes.  Most  of  it  should  be  used  for 
the  silo.  Preferably  two  silos  should  be  filled,  one  for  winter  use 
and  one  for  summer  feeding  to  take  the  place  of  pasture.  A suffi- 
cient acreage  of  soybeans  should  be  grown  to  mix  with  the  corn. 
Corn  can  also  be  grown  as  a cash  crop  by  selecting  and  selling 
it  for  seed.  High  prices  are  obtained  for  seed  corn. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


he  President  of  the  University 
. L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Expt.  Station 

A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 
S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science ; in  charge 
of  Stallion  Enrollment 

A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

A Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
H.  Benkendorf,  Dairy  Husbandry 
L.  Bewick,  Agr.  Extension 
ira  E.  Binzel,  Home  Economics 
Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  Boutwell,  Agricultural  Chemistry 
. S.  Bullock,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 
J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Hus- 
bandry 

B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

. D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  Galpin,  Country  Life  Work 
. J.  Geib,  Soils 

F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Vet.  Science 

G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 

B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
L.  Hatch,  Agr.  Education 

H.  Hibbard,  Agr.  Economics 

.len  Hillstrom,  Home  Economics 
W.  Hopkins,  Editor ; in  charge  of  Agr. 
Journalism 

S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Hus- 
bandry 

A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 
G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
Johnson,  Horticulture 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Eng. 

R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 
Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
an  Krueger,  Home  Economics 

D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

L.  Luther,  Field  Supervisor  of  Extension 
Courses  and  Schools 

iby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics 

G.  Milward,  Horticulture 

G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 

A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 
B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

sid  F.  Murray,  Agr.  Extension 
L.  Musbach.  Soils  (Marshfield) 

H.  Otis,  Farm  Management 


K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 
W.  G.  Dormeyer,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 


W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 
L.  M.  Schindler,  Agr.  Engineering 
Celestine  Schmit,  Home  Economics 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy ; in  charge  of  Seed  In- 
spection 

H.  C.  Taylor,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

H.  W.  Ullsperger.  Soils  (Sturgeon  Bay) 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  L.  Walster,  Soils 
W.  W.  Weir,  Soils 
A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Ento 
moldgy 

J.  F.  Wojta,  State  Leader  of  Agricultural  Rep- 
resentatives 

W.  H'.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

Fred^  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

G.  Baker,  Agr.  Journalism 

J.  W.  Brann,  Horticulture  and  Plant  Path. 

C.  B.  Clevenger,  Soils  and  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Florence  M.  Coerper,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agricultural  Engineering 
C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

E.  G.  Gross,  Agr.  Chemistry 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 

A.  R.  C.  Haas,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
C.  S.  Hean,  Agr.  Library 
E.  L.  Henning,  Soils 
Emily  Hoag,  Agr.  Economics 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
Sarah  V.  Jones,  Experimental  Breeding 
O.  A.  Juve,  Agr.  Economics 
Hazel  Kent,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Maude  Miller,  Plant  Pathology 
Nellie  Beaubien-Nichols,  Agr.  Journalism 

G.  F.  Potter,  Horticulture 

E.  C.  SAUvf:,  Agr.  Engineering 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
David  Smith,  Agr.  Chemistry 

J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
C.  M.  Woodworth,  Genetics 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


# I 


March,  1919 


1 Sb  ^ 


Bulletin  300 


War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits 

H.  C.  TAYLOR  and  S.  W.  MENDUM 


THE  LABOR.  INCOMES  OF  60  VERONA  FARMERS 


With  war  prices  most  farmers  prospered.  In  1914  only  seven  had  a labor 
income  of  more  than  $500  in  addition  to  shelter  and  food  furnished  by  the 
farm,  while  in  1917  the  number  was  46.  The  farmers  whose  incomes  are  indi- 
cated by  the  shaded  dots  received  food  and  shelter  ranging  in  value  up  to 
about  $500.  The  white  dots  represent  the  farmers  who  lost  money  as  well  as 
their  time. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DOES  FARMING  PAY? 


Are  farmers  making  too  much?  Did  they  make  more 
during  the  war  than  usual?  What  are  the  rewards  from 
farming?  What  does  an  average  farmer  make?  How 
many  farmers  just  get  a hare  living  from  their  farms? 

A careful  reading  of  this  bulletin  will  help  answer  these 
and  many  other  similar  questions.  It  wrill  give  definite 
facts  and  figures  from  60  farms  in  one  community — the 
community  is  a typical  southern  Wisconsin  township. 


War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits 


Have  farmers  reaped  a .profit  from  war  prices,  or  have  in- 
creased expenses  absorbed  the  advantage  of  higher  prices? 

Many  assertions  have  been  made  on  each  side  of  this  question. 
What  is  needed  is  a closer  study  of  the  facts.  It  is  not  the 
purpose  of  this  bulletin  to  answer  this  question  for  American 
agriculture  in  general,  nor  even  for  Wisconsin  farmers  as  a 
whole,  but  to  present  in  simple  form  the  facts  as  they  appear  for 
60  farms  in  Dane  County,  Wisconsin,  for  the  years  1913-1917 
inclusive.*  1 

In  the  years  1914  and  1915  both  the  gross  receipts  and  farm 
profits  fell  below  the  level  of  1913.  In  1916,  the  year  prior  to 
our  entering  the  war,  farm  receipts  increased  appreciably  and 
were  followed  by  a still  greater  increase  in  1917. 

In  both  of  these  years  the  expenses  increased,  but  not  so 
rapidly  as  the  income ; hence  there  was  an  increasing  proportion 
of  the  gross  income  left  for  the  farmers  ’ profits  or  labor  income.1 
This  is  illustrated  in  Figure  1,  which  shows  the  relation  of  the 
average  receipts,  expenses  and  labor  income  for  the  60  farms 
covered  by  the  survey  for  each  of  the  five  years. 

The  study  shows  that  the  higher  profits  of  1916  were  due  in 
part  to  better  crops  but  more  largely  to  higher  prices,  and  that 
the  relatively  high  returns  in  1917  must  be  attributed  entirely 
to  high  prices,  because  the  crops  were  poorer.  Figure  2 is 
drawn  to  show  what  the  receipts,  expenses,  and  labor  income 


1 In  August,  1914,  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  undertook  a continuous  farm 
management  survey  of  the  farms  in  Verona  township  and  a part  of  Middleton  town- 
ship, Dane  County,  Wisconsin.  Records  were  then  taken  from  133  farms  for  the  year 
March  1,  1913,  to  March  1,  1914.  F'our  successive  sets  of  records  were  taken  by  mem- 
bers of  the  staff  of  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Economics  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  and  the  results  were  tabulated  by  the  two  agencies  jointly.  Of  over 
200  farms  visited  during  the  period  consecutive  records  for  five  years  were  obtained 
from  60  farms.  The  discussion  in  this  bulletin  is  based  on  these  60  records,  but  the 
representative  character  of  these  has  been  checked  by  comparing  them  with  the  whole 
number  of  records  taken  each  year.  The  average  results  were  approximately  the  same. 

1 LABOR  INCOME  is  the  phrase  used  to  designate  what  is  left  for  the  farmer’s  labor 
and  managerial  ability  after  deducting  from  cash  receipts  and  increased  inventory  all 
the  expenses  including  an  allowance  at  current  rates  for  the  unpaid  family  labor, 
depreciation  on  the  equipment,  and  interest  (at  5 per  cent)  on  the  value  of  the  farm 
property.  The  value  of  the  products  consumed  by  the  family  and  the  residence  value 
of  the  farm  house  are  not  included  in  the  income  and  hence  are  excluded  from  labor 
income  in  the  conventional  discussion.  The  significance  of  this  is  indicated  in 
Figure  8. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  300 


FIGP.  1.— LABOR  INCOMES  INCREASED  WITH  WAR  PRICES 


War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits 


5 


This  chart  js  drawn  on  a basis  of  1913  prices  for  products  and  1913  rates  for  the  elements  of  cost,  and  shows  that  much  of  the 
increased  income  of  1916  and  all  of  the  labor  income  of  1917  was  due  to  war  prices. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  300 


would  have  been  on  these  sixty  farms  for  each  of  the  five  years 
on  the  assumption  of  1913  prices  and  1913  rates  applied  to  the 
elements  of  cost.  Note  that  on  this  assumption  1916  would  have 
been  slightly  better  than  1913,  while  1917  would  have  shown  a 
minus  labor  income.  This  shows  that  the  profits  for  1917  were 
due  entirely  to  higher  prices  and  not  to  better  crops. 

During  1917  prices  were  high  and  rising  higher,  more  rapidly 
than  wrages  and  other  costs  were  rising.  In  this  regard  1917 
will  prove,  it  is  believed,  an  outstanding  year.  In  1918  wages 
and  many  other  elements  of  cost  have  risen  more  rapidly  than 
the  prices,  and  the  prospect  is  for  prices  to  fall  more  rapidly 
than  costs  in  the  period  of  reconstruction.  This  gives  none  too 
cheerful  an  outlook  for  the  farmer;  even  with  such  high  prices 
as  those  of  1916  and  1917  the  average  labor  income  for  the  five 
years  stands  at  $408.  Who  would  count  this  too  high?  But 
who  will  guarantee  the  farmer  as  good  an  average  for  the  next 
five  years?  It  is  a matter  of  great  importance  to  keep  a close 
record  of  farm  finance  during  the  next  few  years  in  order  that 
the  farming  interests  may  secure  a hearing  before  committees 
on  reconstruction. 

The  Verona  area  is  more  or  less  typical  of  the  farming  con- 
ditions in  southern  Wisconsin.  Corn,  oats,  and  hay  are  the 
staple  crops.  Figure  3 shows  how  nearly  equally  the  crop 
area  is  divided  among  these  three  crops,  and  how  completely 
they  occupy  the  tillage  land.  About  54  per  cent  of  the  land  is 
in  crops,  the  remainder  is  in  pasture,  woodland  and  waste  land. 
{See  Figure  4.) 

The  results  of  the  survey  of  the  60  farms  are  summarized  in 
Table  I,  a study  of  which  will  show  the  general  nature  of  the 
investments,  the  receipts,  expenses,  and  labor  incomes  on  the 
average  for  each  of  the  five  years,  and  the  average  for  the  five 
years.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  number  of  cows  increased 
about  20  per  cent  during  the  period.  The  increase  in  milk  pro- 
duction was  due,  apparently,  to  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
cows,  not  to  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  cows. 

The  main  sources  of  income  in  the  Verona  area  are  dairy  pro- 
ducts, cattle,  and  hogs.  The  percentage  of  the  total  receipts 
received  from  each  source  is  indicated  in  Figure  6.  It  will  be 
noted  that  receipts  from  dairy  products  represented  an  increasing 
percentage 'of  the  total  each  of  the  five  years.  This  was  accom- 


War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits 


7 


Table  I. —Summary  of  the  Farm  Business  oyer  a Period  of  Five 
Years,  1913 — 1917,  Verona  Township,  Dane  County,  Wis. 
Average  of  60  Farms 


1918 

1914 

1915  " 

1916 

1917 

j 5 year 
ave. 

Farm  area 

149 

150 

146 

147 

147 

148 

Crop  area 

81,5 

80.9 

80.2 

80.2 

80.7 

80,7 

Months  of  labor 

22.1 

22.9 

21,5 

22.9 

23,0 

22.5 

Number  of  cows 

15.6 

16.3 

16.5 

17.7 

18.6 

16.9 

Number  of  brood  sows 

7.6 

7.6 

6.7 

6.2 

6.6 

6.9 

Number  of  work  horses.... 

4.6 

4.7 

4.7 

4.8 

4.9 

4.7 

Investment 

$17,307 

$17,596 

$17,451 

$17,803 

$18,305 

$17,692 

Receipts 

$1,961 

$1,841 

$1,858 

$2,560 

$3,278 

$2,300 

Divided  as  follows: 

Sales  of  crops 

81. 

57 

44 

74! 

69 

65 

Dairy  products 

826 

830 

913 

1,287 

1,743 

1,120 

Cattle 

236 

265 

322 

360 

388 

314 

Hogs 

647 

547 

463 

700 

911 

654 

Other  stock  and  stock  products 

122 

102 

75 

68 

77 

89 

Misc.  labor,  rent,  wood,  etc 

49 

40 

41 

71 

90 

58 

Expense 

882 

906 

917 

1,043 

1,288 

1,007 

Divided  as  follows: 

Hired  labor 

143 

194 

170 

183 

197 

177 

Family  labor 

192 

184 

175 

232 

271 

211 

Repairs 

71 

71 

70 

83 

91 

77 

Rough  feed ' 

LI 

3 

12 

18 

28 

15 

Concentrates:  Feed  

94 

88 

122 

106 

192 

120 

Taxes  and  insurance 

141 

135 

138 

153 

170 

147 

Depreciation 

102 

104 

lot 

117 

125 

111 

Misc.  current  expenses* 

128 

127 

121 

151 

214 

149 

Farm  income 

1,079 

935 

.941 

1,517 

1,990 

1,293 

Interest  on  investment  at  5 percent... 

865 

.879 

873 

891 

915 

885 

Labor  income 1 

214 

56 

68 

626 

1,075 

408 

V alue  operator’s  labor 

401 

429 

443 

479 

575 

465 

Per  cent  on  investment  (a) 

3.9 

2 9 

2.9 

5.8 

7.7 

4.7 

Farm  income 

1,079 

935 

941 

1,517 

1,990 

1,293 

Value  unpaid  family  labor 

192 

185 

175 

232 

276 

211 

Family  income  (b) 

1,271 

1,120 

1,116 

1,749 

2,266 

1,504 

Family  living  from  farm 

351 

356 

. 342 

388 

525 

391 

Milk  production  per  cow,  lbs 

4,300 

4,550 

4,775 

4,600 

4.350 

4,500 

Price  of  milk  per  cwt 

1.23 

1.12 

1.16 

1.58 

2.16 

1.46 

Price  of  hogs  per  cwt  (c) 

. 7.36 

7.36 

6.51 

8.72 

15.73 

9.14 

Crop  yields,  per  cent  of  5 year  ave 

1.15 

1.04 

.80 

. • / 

1.09 

.93 

1.00 

Silo  filling',  threshing,  seed,  twine,  shoeing,  fuel,  breeding,  veterinary  fees,  etc. 

(a)  After  deducting  value  of  Operator's  Jabor  from  farm  income. 

(b)  The.  sum  of  the  farm  income  and  value  of  unpaid  family  labor,  or  the  amount 

available  for  family  living  if  there  is  no  interest  to  pay. 

(c)  Average  of  October,  November.  December,  farm  price  given  by  Monthly  Crop 
Report  U.  S.  D.  A.,  February,  1918. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  300 


32 

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This  chart  shows  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  crops  grown  on  the  60  farms. 


War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits 


9 


FIG.  4.— USES  MADE  OF  THE  LAND  ON  60  VERONA  FARMS 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  300 


War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits 


11 


panied  by  an  increase  in  the  number  of  cows  and  an  increase  in 
the  number  of  silos. 

The  absolute  increase  in  receipts  from  milk  and  from  hogs 
is  shown  in  Figure  5.  In  the  years  1914  and  1915,  though  milk 
prices  were  lower  than  in  1913,  there  was  a slight  increase  in 
the  receipts  from  milk.  The  higher  milk  prices  in  the  following 
years  resulted  in  very  marked  increase  in  the  income  from  this 
source.  This  was  accompanied  by  a like  increase  from  hogs  sold 
in  1916  and  1917  over  the  receipts  in  the  previous  year.  These 
facts  point  again  to  the  conclusion  that  the  increase  in  the  in- 
come was  due  largely  to  the  rise  in  prices. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  account  are  the  expenses.  Figure  1 
shows  an  important  increase  in  the  expenses  in  1916  and  1917. 
The  percentage  of  the  total  expense  represented  by  each  of  the 
seven  elements  of  expense  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  Note  that  in 
spite  of  the  increase  in  wages  hired  labor  represented  a smaller 
percentage  of  the  total  expense  in  1917  than  in  any  other  of  the 
five  years.  Note  also  that  feeds  purchased  represented  a higher 
percentage  of  the  expenses  in  1917  than  in  any  other  year.  This 
was  due  to  poor  crops  and  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  feed 
purchased.  Miscellaneous  operating  expenses,  including  binder 
twine,  threshing  bills,  and  other  items  represent  a higher  per- 
centage of  total  expenses  in  1917  than  in  any  other  year. 

Figure  8 shows  the  average  gross  income  for  each  of  the 
five  years,  and  shows  also  what  becomes  of  the  income.  This  is 
at  once  an  expense  and  an  income  chart.  This  chart  is  more 
cheering  than  a study  of  labor  incomes  without  considering  other 
sources  of  income  which  may  be  available  for  spending  or  saving. 
Commencing  at  the  top  of  the  bars,  an  estimate  of  the  value 
of  the  house  rent,  fuel,  and  food  furnished  the  family  by  the 
farm  is  given.1  Prior  to  war  prices  this  was  more  important 
than  labor  income,  which  taken  aloiie  certainly  looked  discourag- 
ing in  the  first  three  years  of  the  survey.  The  third  item  from 
the  top,  family  labor,  is  an  item  which  is  not  paid.  This  remains 
in  the  family  pocketbook.  It  is  the  fourth  item,  however,  which 
leaves  the  farmer  feeling  prosperous,  in  the  absence  of  a labor 


1 In  39<13  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  made  a study  of  these  items  for  farms 
in  Jefferson  County,  Wisconsin,  and  published  the  findings  in  Bulletin  410.  The  figures 
reported  in  that  bulletin  have  been  recast  to  fit  the  conditions  in  the  Verona  area  for 
1913,  on  the  basis  that  the  two  communities  are  similar  in  many  respects.  In  esti- 
mating for  the  following  years  of  the  survey,  the  index  number  for  “cost  of  living’’ 
(based  on  25  food  products  properly  weighted)  published  by  the  “Annalist”  has  been 
applied  to  the  1913  figures. 


Per  Cent  20 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  300 


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fa 


Five-sixths  of  the  income  was  derived  from  the  dairy  herd  and  hogs. 


War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits 


13 


FIG.  7.— DISTRIBUTION  OF  EXPENSES 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  300 


income,  but  only  if  he  is  out  of  debt.  If  he  is  heavily  in  debt, 
the  interest  charge  is  a bill  of  expense  which  hangs  heavily  over 
the  farm  family  until  it  is  finally  stopped  by  full  payment  of 
the  debt.  Where  all  of  these  sources  of  income  are  combined, 
they  give  the  basis  of  the  apparent  prosperity  of  the  farmer. 
Even  when  he  receives  small  pay  for  his  labor,  his  disposable 
income  is  fairly  large. 

Figure  9 gives  another  reason  for  being  hopeful  over  the 
farmers’  economic  outlook.  Up  to  this  point,  the  discussion  has 
dealth  wit  hthe  average  of  60  farms.  In  Figure  9 each  of  the 
60  farmers  is  given  his  place  on  the  chart  for  each  of  the  five 
years.  This  shows  what  skill,  energy,  and  good  management 

can  do  in  the  way  of  winning  a handsome  labor  income  at  a 

time  when  other  farmers  are  losing  money.  The  fact  that  under 
most  favorable  conditions  with  respect  to  prices  some  farmers 
win  no  labor  income  beyond  things  furnished  the  family  by 
the  farm,  helps  one  to  understand  why  there  may  be  discontent 
among  the  farmers  when  at  the  same  time  many  farmers  are 

known  to  be  prospering.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  prices 

will  be  high  enough  to  give  a labor  income  to  the  indolent  and 
inefficient,  but  it  is  necessary  that  the  industrious,  competent 
farmers  be  amply  paid  for  their  products  if  the  business  of 
farming  is  to  continue  to  improve. 

In  farming  as  in  other  occupations  the  prizes  are  for  those 
who  have  ability.  The  wide  range  in  labor  income  shown  in 
Figure  9 and  more  accurately  arrayed  in  Table  II,  gives  evidence 
that  the  man  of  skill,  industry,  and  judgment  can  hope  to  earn 
a handsome  income  by  operating  a farm. 

This  is  the  ground  for  hope  that  there  will  ever  be  those 
who  can  climb  the  ladder  to  independence.  But  with  this  hope 
for  the  man  at  the  head  of  the  class  goes  the  gloomy  outlook  for 
the  man  at  the  foot  of  the  class.  , 

The  number  of  farmers  who  made  a minus  labor  income  in 
the  years  1913,  1914  and  1915  is  entirely  too  great.  On  the 
average  for  the  five  years  one  out  of  every  six  farmers  netted  a 
loss  ranging  from  $20  to  $598,  omitting  what  the  family  re- 
ceived from  the  farm.  This  would  seem  to  be  too  high  a per- 
centage of  submerged  farmers  even  with  war  prices  in  1916 
and  1917  to  bring  up  the  average  for  the  five  years.  Yet  it 
must  be  admitted  that  under  the  same  conditions  more  than 
half  the  farmers  made  labor  incomes  which,  when  combined 


War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits 


15 


TABLE  II. -LABOR  INCOMES,  VERONA  AREA 


(Arranged  according  to  size  of  the  five-year  average) 


Rank 

Farm 

No. 

5 year 
average 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1 

104 

11,337 

$865 

$1,322 

$111 

$2,367 

$'\018 

2 

42 

1,164 

2,773 

-376 

863 

484 

2,076 

3 

65 

1,137 

869 

1,413 

517 

1.088 

1,800 

4 

39 

1,106 

469 

942 

722 

1,326 

2,070 

5 

11 

1,044 

596 

449 

517 

1,460 

2,197 

6 

14 

1,010 

211 

238 

57 

2,438 

2,104 

7 

56 

1,001 

908 

515 

740 

842  t 

2,000 

8 

59 

997 

869 

459 

370 

1,507 

1,780 

9 

15 

874 

265 

920 

67 

1,555 

1.561 

10 

69 

869 

964 

-159 

.510 

1,233  | 

1,797 

11 

96 

$777 

$411 

$677 

$690 

$892 

$1,214 

J ' 

58 

773 

457 

-200 

2 23 

2 . 101 

1,286 

13 

48 

769 

209 

155 

— 54 

1,449 

2,085 

14 

129 

756 

-81 

94 

772 

1,644 

1,353 

15 

46 

731 

779 

-680 

-650 

1,949 

2,255 

16 

79 

703 

516 

89 

120 

1.071 

1,719 

17 

1 

684 

1,619 

839 

88 

-140 

1,013 

is 

109 

642 

343 

188 

524 

884 

1,273 

19 

137 

603 

514 

-179 

-248 

1.174 

1,756 

2u 

110 

598 

-50 

-302 

270 

1.166 

1,907 

21 

44 

$565 

$201 

$ 31 

$ 97 

$196 

$2,298 

>2 

106 

557 

777 

324  1 

121 

262 

1,299 

2x : 

4 

529 

236 

21 

277 

857 

1,255 

24 

108 

524 

224 

142  1 

250 

795 

1,210 

71 

512 

112 

378 

369 

561  j 

1,141 

26 

113 

468 

424 

-151 

128 

567  | 

1,374 

27 

82 

456 

779 

247 

-256 

587  1 

924 

28 

83 

441 

528 

263 

185 

611 

618 

29 

135 

421 

-27 

—269 

310 

679 

1.411 

30 

7 

416 

7 

254 

-87 

384 

1,522 

31 

23 

$402 

$266 

$302 

$472 

$274 

$694 

32 

18 

367 

552 

-55 

24 

669 

647 

33 

17 

349 

283 

159 

-56 

483 

874 

34 

105 

342 

—714 

—455 

368 

875 

1 634 

90 

331 

-50 

-72 

88  ■ 

647 

l!  041 

36 

50 

313 

236 

156 

-46 

430 

790 

37 

111 

252 

69 

13 

3 1 

490 

684 

38 

77 

246 

30 

-117 

-176 

102 

1.391 

39 

80 

239 

1 

-365 

294 

407 

858 

40 

134 

233 

-98 

148 

162 

-13 

968 

41 

io7 

$221 

$417 

$249 

jr$-49~ 

$-41 

530 

42 

10 

206 

196 

417 

-227 

260 

'384 

84 

201 

-17 

‘99 

-102 

117  j 

708 

44 

61 

192 

-201 

-406 

-363 

540 

1,390 

45. 

29 

182 

—50 

—91 

360 

286 

46 

102 

175 

-188 

220 

-146 

194 

797 

47 . . 

36 

137 

158 

-149 

423 

130 

122 

48 

130 

98 

-45 

—115 

109 

478 

64 

49 

95 

39 

-38 

24 

-204 

217 

197 

50 

5 

22 

-129 

— 457 

485 

103 

109 

51 

12 

— $20 

| —*118”" 

$-94~ 

S— 340 

$357 

$ 93 

52 

21 

— 37 

-5 

— 266 

1 -308 

-152 

547 

33 

• -57 

11 

-48 

-258 

—410 

420 

54 

122 

—100 

-301 

-330 

—47 

102 

77 

55 

87 

—161 

—531 

— 591 

— 687 

910 

56 

12 

-310 

-567 

-386 

-637 

-443 

481 

57 

72 

-315 

-275 

-434 

—423 

-312 

-1M 

58 

94 

-347 

-1,584 

-317 

-927 

— 162 

1,253 

59 

121 

-593 

-490 

— 9o4  * 

-455 

( _ 660 

—397 

60 

93 

-598 

-747 

— 574 

-866 

-267 

-534 

Total 

$24  483 

1 $12,838 

$3,345 

$4,074 

1 $37,650 

Average 

60  farms- 

i ’408 

214 

56 

68 

’ 626 

«PU-t , ? UU 

Maximum 

$1,337 

$2,773 

l $1,413 

$863 

$2,438 

i , U/3 
<2*9  90S 

Minimum 

598 

— L584 

—964 

—927 

—660 

£34 

Range 

1 935 

4.357 

2 377 

1 790 

1 3 098 

Index 

1.00 

.52 

1 -14 

’.17 

i .54 

O OL 

2.64 

16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  300 


DOLLARS 

4,000- 


VALUE  SUPPLIED  BY  THE 
FARM  TOWARD  FAMILY'S 
LIVING  EXPENSE  (estimated) 


FARMER'S  LABOR  INCOME 
UNPAID  FAMILY  LABOR 

INTEREST  ON  INVESTMENT 


DEPRECIATION  OF  EQUIPMENT 


TAXES  AND  INSURANCE 
REPAIRS 

MISC.  CURRENT  EXPENSES 
FEEDS  PURCHASED 
HIRED  LABOR 


3,000- 


2p00 


1,000 


1915  1916  1917 


AVERAGE 


FIG.  8.— WHERE  DOES  THE  MONEY  GO? 

This  distribution  of  gross  income  explains  the  apparent  prosperity  of  farmers,  even 
when  conditions  are  such  that  their  own  wages  (labor  incomes)  are  very  small.  If  the- 
farmer  is  free  from  debt  the  family  may  have  a large  income  to  dispose  of. 


W a if  Pricks  and  Farm  Profits 


17 


FIG.  9.— WITH  FAIR  PRICES  THE  FARMER’S  OUTLOOK  IS  HOPEFUL 

Each  dot  in  this  figure  represents  the  labor  income  of  one  farmer.  The  grouping  of 
the  dots  tends  to  follow  the  trend  of  prices  of  products.  Farmers  represented  by  dots 
lying  between  the  black  area  and  the  zero  line  had  to  be  content  with  interest  and  a 
part  of  their  living  from  the  farm.  Those  in  the  black  area  did  not  make  interest  on 
their  investment,  to  say  nothing  of  wages  for  their  labor. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  300 


with  what  the  farm  furnished  the  family,  put  them  in  a position 
to  get  ahead  financially  year  after  year.  The  future  of  American 
agriculture  demands  that  the  road  be  kept  open  to  the  top.  A 
high  percentage  of  the  young  farmers  must  be  able  to  save  from 
their  earnings  and  buy  farms.  This  requires  adequate  prices, 
and  while  there  is  no  law  of  human  justice  which  demands  that 
prices  be  so  high  that  the  man  without  ability  and  willingness 
to  work  successfully  under  his  own  guidance  shall  be  made  to 
flourish  as  the  manager  of  a farm,  prices  should  be  high  enough 
to  give  at  least  five  out  of  six  a labor  income.  It  took  the  prices 
of  1916  and  1917  to  bring  the  Verona  farmers  up  to  this  level 
and  to  give  them  a five-year  average  labor  income  of  $408. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


he  President  of  the  University 
[.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
. B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Expt.  Station 

T.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
. M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 
. S Alexander,  Veterinary  Science ; in  charge 
of  Stallion  Enrollment 
. A.  Aust,  Horticulture 
. A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
. H.  Benkendorf,  Dairy  Husbandry 
. L.  Bewick,  Agr.  Extension 
ora  E.  Binzel,  Home  Economics 
. Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  Boutwell,  Agricultural  Chemistry 
. S.  Bullock,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 
. J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

, H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Hus- 
bandry 

B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
'.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  Galpin,  Country  Life  Work 
. J.  Geib,  Soils 

F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Vet.  Science 

G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 

B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
L.  Hatch,  Agr.  Education 

H.  Hibbard,  Agr.  Economics 
xen  Hillstrom,  Home  Economics 

W.  Hopkins,  Editor ; in  charge  of  Agr. 
Journalism 

S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Hus- 
bandry 

A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 
G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
Johnson,  Horticulture 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Eng. 

R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 
Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
an  Krueger,  Home  Economics 

D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

L.  Luther,  Field  Supervisor  of  Extension 
Courses  and  Schools 

iby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics 

G.  Milward,  Horticulture 

G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 

A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 
B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

:id  F.  Murray,  Agr.  Extension 
L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

H.  Otis,  Farm  Management 


K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 
W.  G.  Dormeyer,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 


W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 
L.  M.  Schindler,  Agr.  Engineering 
Celestine  Schmit,  Home  Economics 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy ; in  charge  of  Seed  In- 
spection 

H.  C.  Taylor,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

H.  W.  Ullsperger.  Soils  (Sturgeon  Bay) 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  L.  Walster,  Soils 
W.  W.  Weir,  Soils 
A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Ento- 
mology 

J.  F.  Wojta,  State  Leader  of  Agricultural  Rep- 
resentatives 

W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

Fred^  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

G.  Baker,  Agr.  Journalism 

J.  W.  Brann,  Horticulture  and  Plant  Path. 

C.  B.  Clevenger,  Soils  and  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Florence  M.  Coerper,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agricultural  Engineering 
C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

E.  G.  Gross,  Agr.  Chemistry 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 

A.  R.  C.  Haas,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
C.  S.  Hean,  Agr.  Library 
E.  L.  Henning,  Soils 
Emily  Hoag,  Agr.  Economics 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
Sarah  V.  Jones,  Experimental  Breeding 
O.  A.  Juve,  Agr.  Economics 
Hazel  Kent,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Maude  Miller,  Plant  Pathology 
Nellie  Beaubien-Nichols,  Agr.  Journalism 

G.  F.  Potter,  Horticulture 

E.  C.  SauvE,  Agr.  Engineering 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
David  Smith,  Agr.  Chemistry 

J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
C.  M.  Woodworth,  Genetics 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


o. 


April,  1919 


Bulletin  301 


Wisconsin  Wins 

Annual  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Extension 
Service  for  1917-18 


H.  L.  RUSSELL  and  K.  L.  HATCH 


1017  1918 

WISCONSIN’S  MAJOR  CONTRIBUTION 

Teamwork  was  responsible  for  the  state’s  remarkable  record  in  increasing  the  pro- 
duction of  bread  cereals  60  per  cent,  sugar  beets  30  per  cent,  meat  20  per  cent  and  other 

products  in  a similar  manner. 


Extension  Service  of  the  College  of  Agriculture 
The  University  of  Wisconsin 


Madison 


What  the  Agricultural  Extension  Service 
Will  do  for  You 


Find  a market  for  your  surplus  dairy  cattle. 

Help  find  suitable  pure  bred  sires  for  you. 

Organize  a cow  testing  association  in  your  neighborhood. 
Plan  economical  rations  for  your  live  stock. 

Show  you  how  to  select  the  laying  hens. 

Prove  the  value  of  pure  bred  seeds. 

Demonstrate  how  to  succeed  with  alfalfa. 

Send  inoculation  for  your  legumes. 

Show  you  how  to  control  smut,  blight,  and  barley  stripe. 
Prescribe  for  your  other  plant  diseases. 

Tell  you  how  best  to  fight  bugs  and  insects. 

Illustrate  how  to  produce  fruit  free  from  defects. 

Select  pure  strains  of  potatoes  and  certify  the  seed. 

Help  you  to  drain  that  wet  spot. 

Test  your  soil  and  prescribe  helpful  fertilizers. 

Clear  new  land  with  less  backache. 

Send  you  plans  for  farm  buildings. 

Show  you  how  to  beautify  your  farm  grounds  cheaply. 
Suggest  helpful  conveniences  for  the  farm  home. 

Help  you  to  improve  the  quality  of  your  dairy  products. 
Show  you  how  to  keep  farm  accounts. 

Form  Boys’  and  Girls’  Clubs  for  your  children. 

Assist  Farmers’  Clubs  and  Cooperative  Organizations. 
Arrange  a Farmers’  Meeting  for  your  neighborhood. 

Send  you  FREE  bulletins  and  circulars. 


For  “First  Aid”  See  Your  County  Agent 


Wisconsin  Wins 


“Food  will  win  the  war”  was  the  slogan  of  every  patriotic 
farmer  during  1918.  All  the  energies  of  leadership  possessed 
by  the  College  of  Agriculture  were  bent  toward  the  end  of  ‘ ‘ More 
Food.”  Despite  the  serious  handicap  of  farm  labor  shortage, 
particularly  acute  with  the  advance  of  the  harvest  season, 
Wisconsin  made  an  enviable  record,  though  the  physical 
strength  of  her  farm  population  was  taxed  to  the  utmost. 


Team  Work  Effective 

In  no  other  state  do  all  its  agencies  work  together  for  the 
common  good  better  than  in  Wisconsin.  The  success  of  the 
food  production  campaign  was  in  no  small  degree  due  to  the 
excellent  team  work  of  all  federal,  state  and  county  agencies. 
The  entire  program  was  under  direction  of  the  State  Council 
of  Defense,  working  through  the  county  council  organizations, 
particularly  their  agricultural  committees  composed  of  the 
leading  patriotic  farmers  of  the  county. 

The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Wisconsin  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  the  Wisconsin  Live  Stock  Breeders’ 
Association,  the  Wisconsin  Dairymens’  Association,  the  various 
state  and  county  breeders’  associations,  the  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Association  and  the  State  Horticultural  Society — all 
united  with  the  College  of  Agriculture  in  the  planning  and 
execution  of  the  food  production  campaign  to  achieve  these 
ends : 

First,  to  produce  more  of  the  essential  vegetable  foods,  such 
as  potatoes,  sugar  and  bread  cereals. 

Second,  to  increase  the  supply  of  fats  and  animal  foods, 
including  poultry,  beef,  pork,  milk  and  other  dairy  products. 

Third,  to  make  each  acre  produce  more  of  feed  for  animals 
and  of  food  for  man,  through  the  use  of  better  seed,  better 
crops,  weed  eradication  and  soil  management. 


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Fourth,  to  bring  more  acres  under  cultivation  through  drain- 
age, land  clearing  and  the  control  of  weeds,  plant  diseases  and 
insect  pests. 


In  no  other  instance  were  such  phenomenal  results  obtained 
as  in  the  bread  grain  drive.  The  acreage  of  wheat  and  rye 
was  greatly  increased  and  the  total  bread  harvest  was  boosted 
in  a single  year  from  10,000,000  to  nearly  16,000,000  bushels! 


FIG.  2.— THE  WISCONSIN  PORKER  GREW 

In  reply  to  the  appeal  for  more  meat  and  fat,  the  2,019,000  hogs  weighing  about 
200,000  tons  in  1917,  were  increased  to  2,180,000  head,  weighing  240,000  tons,  in  1918. 

This  was  due  to  the  fixed  price  for  wheat,  the  use  of  purebred 
seed,  an  unusually  favorable  season,  the  patriotic  impulse 
and  the  splendid  cooperation  which  the  agronomy  department 
secured  with  the  Wisconsin  millers  and  bankers. 


Pigs  and  poultry  offered  promise  of  quick  returns  in  the 
effort  to  relieve  the  shortage  of  meats  but  the  destruction  of 
the  corn  crop  by  the  frost  of  1917  forced  a reduction  in  the 
supply  of  Wisconsin  pork  products  for  that  year.  This  shortage 
was  met  with  the  “Extra  Litter”  campaign  of  1918  which 
resulted  in  an  increase  of  7 per  cent  over  the  previous  year. 
The  additional  supply  of  good  corn  enabled  the  farmers  to 
market  these  hogs  showing  a gain  of  18  per  cent  in  weight  over 
the  previous  year.  Thus,  20  per  cent  was  added  to  the  state’s 
supply  of  fat.  The  largest  single  factor  in  this  campaign  was, 
without  doubt  the  now  familiar  13  to  1 ratio  of  the  food  ad- 
ministration which  furnished  the  necessary  financial  incentive 
to  make  the  effort  worth  while. 


Badgers  Boost  Bread 


Pigs  Make  Pork 


Wisconsin  Wins 


5 


War  Garden  Work 


Early  in  the  year  plans  were  made  by  the  horticulture 
department  to  wage  a vigorous  campaign  for  the  production 
of  war  gardens.  Through  lectures  and  printed  matter  prac- 


Thousands  of  attractive  folders  were  issued  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  enthusiastic 

“back  lotters.” 


tically  every  person  in  the  various  cities  of  the  state  was  reached 
and  the  number  of  war  gardens  planted  added  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  food  insurance  of  the  state. 


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The  Potato  Problem  Solved 

The  large  potato  crop  of  1917  and  the  consequent  slump 
in  prices  just  before  planting  time  made  vigorous  measures 
necessary  to  prevent  a reduction  in  acreage.  Through  general 
publicity,  the  patriotic  appeal,  the  holding  of  meetings  and 
conferences  in  the  potato  sections,  boys’  and  girls’  potato  clubs 
and  the  activity  of  the  State  Council  of  Defense  in  assisting 
farmers  to  find  markets  for  their  surplus  stock,  the  usual  Wis- 
consin acreage  was  maintained.  With  favorable  weather  a 
bumper  crop  was  the  result. 


Sweets  Shortage  Relieved 

When  the  call  came  for  more  sugar  a systematic  campaign 
was  undertaken  to  increase  the  sugar  beet  acreage  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  sugar  beet  factories  and  within  easy  access  of  loading 
stations.  “Raise  Your  Own  Sugar”  was  the  slogan. 

Twenty-five  per  cent  was  added  to  the  acreage  planted  to 
sugar  beets  and  conditions  now  indicate  an  increase  of  more 
than  30  per  cent  in  the  beet-sugar  output  of  the  state.  On 
the  basis  of  the  restricted  allotment  of  the  U.  S.  Food  Admin- 
istration, Wisconsin  raised  enough  sugar  to  supply  her  own 
needs  and  to  assist  in  relieving  serious  shortage  elsewhere. 

Besides  this,  sorghum  growing  was  revived  and  a sufficient 
acreage  planted  to  keep  all  available  sorghum  mills  busy  during 
the  grinding  season. 


Corn  for  Feed  and  Flour 

Owing  to  the  early  freeze  the  corn  crop  of  1917  was  very 
poor.  Hardly  any  of  it  matured  for  seed.  This  made  the 
seed  corn  situation  serious.  A seed  corn  survey  taken  early  in 
the  spring  by  the  schools  revealed  a shortage  of  approximately 
100,000  bushels.  The  State  Seed  Stocks  Committee  was  able 
to  supply  farmers  with  adequate  seed  from  outside  the  state 


Wisconsin  Wins 


7 


and  to  secure  redistribution  of  locally  grown  purebred  stocks 
so  that  normal  acreage  was  slightly  increased.  The  quality  of 
the  crop  this  year  proved  exceptionally  good  for  use  as  flour, 
feed  and  silage. 


Silo  Drive  Successful 

The  silo  drive,  pushed  with  vigor  last  year  was  continued. 
Despite  a shortage  of  material  and  restricted  transportation 


FIG.  4.— WISCONSIN  FARMERS  BUILT  10,000  SILOS  IN  WAR  TIME 

In  the  spring  of  1917  the  state  had  58,000  silos  in  which  to  store  succulent  feed.  By  fall 
of  1918  , 68,000  silos  were  serving. 


a very  substantial  increase  was  made  in  the  number  of  silos 
already  popular  on  Wisconsin  farms. 

Poultry  Proves  Production 

During  the  year  the  production  of  more  poultry  was  actively 
pushed  by  the  formation  of  poultry  clubs,  by  lectures,  and 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  301 


demonstration  given  by  the  poultry  department  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  and  by  the 
use  of  press  and  educational  material.  The  results  are  shown 
in  the  increased  supply  of  Wisconsin  poultry  and  eggs  received 
at  the  Milwaukee  and  Chicago  markets  and  by  a net  increase  of 
12  per  cent  in  the  poultry  production  of  the  state. 


PIG.  5.— ABOUT  TO  LEAVE  WISCONSIN 
A small  part  of  the  million  dollars  worth  of  dairy  cattle  sold  to  other  states  in  1918. 


Dairy  Cattle  Distribution  Speeds  Up 

The  plan  for  dairy  cattle  redistribution,  employed  last  year, 
has  developed  both  in  proportions  and  future  promise.  Not 
a week  passed  but  from  one  to  twenty  buyers  visited  the  state 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  purebred,  or  high-grade  dairy 
cattle.  The  Extension  Service  with  the  cooperation  of  the 
various  live  stock  breeders  ’ associations  has  assisted  in  the  trans- 
fer of  more  than  $1,000,000  worth  of  dairy  cattle  to  out-of-state 
buyers  in  the  last  year. 

No  doubt  the  high  price  of  dairy  products  during  the  war 
has  accelerated  the  movement  of  dairy  cattle.  It  must  be  re- 


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9 


membered,  however,  that  with  the  coming  of  peace  and  a res- 
toration of  onr  reserve  supply  of  grain,  great  areas  in  the  North- 
west, West  and  Southwest  now  devoted  to  grain  and  cotton  grow- 


FIG.  6.— WHAT  “OUR  CREED”  HAS  MEANT  TO'  OTHER  STATES 

Outside  markets  were  supplied  through  the  Extension  Service  with  mpre  than  400  car 
loads  of  Wisconsin  dairy  cattle  during  the  past  year. 


ing  will  be  forced  to  more  intensive  agriculture.  In  such  a 
system  dairy  farming  is  certain  to  occupy  a very  important 
place.  Nor  is  this  all.  The  whole  milk  business  demands  a 


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constant  supply  of  new  animals  to  take  the  place  of  discarded 
cows.  Since  in  most  milk  supply  sections  not  enough  calves 
are  raised  the  redistribution  of  dairy  cattle  is  bound  to  be  of  ever 
increasing  importance. 


' Association  Records  Proved  Profitable 


That  a favorable  yearly  record  adds  from  $10  to  $25  to  the 
market  value  of  a cow  and  a proportionate  amount  to  the  price 
of  her  daughters  is  amply  proven  by  the  eagerness  of  buyers 
to  pay  a premium  for  cows  and  heifers  from  tested  herds.  The 
new  “ Register  of  Production”  of  cows  whose  yearly  association 


Register  of  Production  No. 


1 


WISCONSIN  DAIRYMEN’S  ASSOCIATION 

COOPERATING  WITH 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

This  is  to  certify  that  the  cow JBlilC— D LcKl  fl  SjQII _whose 

description  appears  on  the  reverse  side  of  this  certificate  and  is 
owned  by ..  77?  O..  UL/rfriwstLsrr?. has  qualified  for  entry  in  the 


REGISTER  OF  PRODUCTION 

WISCONSIN  COW  TESTING  ASSOCIATIONS 


having  produced 3,215  pounds  of  milk  containing  360,9  pounds  of  fat 
during  the  Cow  Testing  Association  year 


1917 


ending 

Accepted  for  entry  15 


Secretary  Wisconsin  Dairyn 

1916 


FIG.  7. — CERTIFICATES  LIKE  THIS  ADD  TO  VALUE 


Every  cow  that  makes  an  association  record  of  a “pound  a day”  or  365  pounds  of  fat 
during  the  year  is  entitled  to  one  of  these  certificates. 

records  show  an  average  of  a “pound  a day,”  or  365  pounds 
for  the  year,  is  proving  particularly  helpful  in  encouraging 
the  further  testing  of  Wisconsin  herds.  While  this  has  been 
in  operation  only  a few  months  its  value  has  already  been  proven 
beyond  question.  The  46  new  associations  added  during  the 
year  bring  the  total  number  of  cows  placed  under  test  up  to 
54,661  or  an  increase  of  50  per  cent  over  last  year.  Owing  to 


Wisconsin  Wins 


11 


the  need  for  men  in  military  affairs  it  was  impossible  to 
keep  all  these  associations  supplied  with  competent  testers. 
This  has  had  the  effect  of  reducing  considerably  the  number 
of  cows  now  under  test. 


FIG.  8.— SOLD  FOR  MERIT,  NOT  MARKS 

The  buyer  was  not  interested  in  this  cow  until  he  learned  that  the  cow  testing  associa- 
tion record  showed  a net  gain  of  $99— above  feed  costs.  Then  he  paid  an  extra  $25  to 
get  her. 


Alfalfa  Replaces  Bran 

The  value  of  alfalfa  as  a dairy  feed  was  especially  emphasized 
by  the  shortage  of  bran  and  other  mill  feeds.  In  Green  County 
a group  of  farmers  imported  375  tons  through  the  al- 
falfa organization.  Its  proved  value  has  lent  more  than  or- 
dinary interest  to  the  390  demonstration  plats  that  have  been 
established  through  the  state  by  Mr.  Graber  (Agronomy)  during 
the  last  three  years. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  301 


Fertilizers  Produce  Food 

While  “food  wins  war”  it  takes  fertility  to  produce  food. 
Legumes  will  not  do  their  best  on  poor  land,  neither  will  bread 
grains  yield  a maximum  crop  in  a soil  low  in  phosphorus  or 


fig.  9.— here  fertilizer  doubled  the  yield 

Each  shock  was  grown  on  one  square  rod  of  long  cropped  silt  loam.  The  corn  on  the 
unfertilized  plot  yielded  at  the  rate  of  8.7  tons  an  acre  while  the  fertilized  plot  yielded 
15.8  tons,  or  nearly  twice  as  much  silage,  at  a cost  of  $1.70  an  acre  for  fertilizer. 


potash.  Even  under  the  handicap  of  high  prices,  demonstration 
work  by  the  soils  department  on  the  use  of  fertilizers  and 
lime  showed  a profit  in  their  use — as  well  as  a very  material 
increase  in  the  food  stuffs  so  badly  needed.  The  export  of 
large  quantities  of  grain  will  lower  the  available  fertility  of 
our  farms  to  an  extent  that  will  necessitate  more  careful  man- 
agement of  our  soils  and  a more  liberal  use  of  fertilizers  in  the 
immediate  future  if  soil  fertility  is  to  be  properly  maintained. 


Wisconsin  Wins 


13 


Kill  the  Pests  and  Save  the  Crop 

Systematic  effort  to  destroy  weeds,  grain  diseases  and  insect 
pests  during  the  past  year  resulted  in  the  saving  of  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  bushels  of  grain.  The  common  barberry, 
the  host  plant  for  wheat  rust,  was  persistently  fought.  Very 
little  rust  appeared  and  as  a result  the  yield  of  spring  wheat 


FIG.  10.— REMOVING  ERGOT  FROM  RYE 

The  diseased  rye  kernels  float  in  a strong-  brine  solution  and  are  easily  skimmed  off, 
leaving  the  sound  kernels  for  seed. 


was  exceptionally  good.  Seed  treatment  for  smut  in  oats,  ergot 
in  rye  and  barley  stripe  was  consistently  practiced  under  the 
leadership  of  the  plant  pathology  department  by  federal,  state 
and  county  agents.  Over  6,390  bushels  were  treated  by  four 
agents,  nearly  1600  bushels  each. 

Crop  rotation,  frequent  cultivation  and  the  use  of  cleaned 
and  treated  seeds,  free  from  weeds,  were  the  general  methods 
adopted  for  the  control  of  all  pests. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  301 


An  outbreak  of  late  potato  blight  in  Barron  County  was 
quickly  brought  under  control  and  its  spread  effectively  pre- 
vented. Similarly,  orchard  pruning  and  spraying  demonstra- 
tions and  apple  grading  and  packing  at  41  different  places  in 
the  state  carried  on  by  the  horticulture  department  proved 
of  value  both  in  saving  the  fruit  crop  and  in  marketing  it  to 
good  advantage. 


fig.  n.— apple  grading  and  packing  aids  in  profitable  marketing 

Assisting  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture  to  demonstrate  the  proper  grading  and 
packing  of  apples  under  the' new  apple  grading  law. 


Inoculation  Increases  Yields 

During  the  spring  of  1918  cultures  for  the  inoculation  of  ap- 
proximately 7000  acres  of  common  legumes  were  supplied  by 
the  bacteriology  department.  Reports  indicate  that  the  cul- 
tures produced  increased  yields  in  90  per  cent  of  the  cases  of 
alfalfa  and  soybeans. 


Wisconsin  Wins 


15 


Threshermen  Save  Grain 

Over  200,000  bushels  of  bread  grains  were  saved  as  a direct 
result  of  the  educational  work  of  the  grain  threshing  com- 
mittees organized  by  the  food  administration  with  the  assistance 
of  county  agents  and  local  threshermen. 


FIG.  12.— FINDING  AN  EASIER  AND  QUICKER  WAY 

The  Land  Clearing  Special,  under  special  permit  from  the  United  States  Railroad 
Administration,  was  run  as  a part  of  the  plan  for  putting  more  fertile  land  under  the 

plow. 


Brush  vs.  Bread 

Land  clearing  demonstrations  and  brushing  contests,  partici- 
pated in  by  upwards  of  15,000  people,  aroused  many  an  idle 
acre  to  war  activity.  In  Sawyer  County  alone,  30  per  cent 
was  added  to  the  cultivated  area  and  a corresponding  amount 
to  the  total  yield  of  food  products.  This  is  typical  of  the  pro- 
gress made  in  a number  of  the  counties  of  the  northern  section 
and  was  without  doubt  greatly  stimulated  by  the  educational 
work  of  the  agricultural  college.  The  “Land  Clearing  Special.” 
the  only  demonstration  train  authorized  last  year  by  the  U.  S. 


I 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  301 


Railroad  administration,  greatly  stimulated  activity  in  land 
clearing  operations. 

Wet  Land  Set  to  Work 

The  drainage  of  small  wet  spots  on  97  farms  urged  by  the 
agricultural  engineering  department  reclaimed  1800  acres 
during  the  past  year.  The  work  was  done  principally  on  land 
just  dry  enough  to  tempt  the  farmer  to  cultivate  it,  but  just 
wet  enough  to  prevent  the  growth  of  a crop.  In  almost  every 
enterprise  of  this  sort  the  entire  crop  can  be  considered  as 
net  profit,  since  in  former  years  such  land  was  generally  cul- 
tivated without  any  adequate  return  on  account  of  poor  drain- 
age. 


Service  From  Saving 

At  the  time  of  the  most  serious  food  shortage  it  was  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  save.  Both  food  and  clothing  were 
badly  needed  by  our  armies  and  allies  and  the  supply  had  to 
come  from  stocks  on  hand.  Economy  was  the  watchword.  To 
teach  and  to  preach  economy,  20  home  demonstration  agents 
were  located  in  as  many  counties  of  the  state.  Their  work  was 
on  the  use  of  wheat  substitutes,  in  the  manufacture  of  war 
breads,  in  the  saving  of  sugar  and  fat,  in  the  conservation  of 
clothing  by  making  over  old  garments  and  in  health  and  general 
welfare  problems,  so  largely  fostered  by  the  home  economics 
department. 

This  work  was  so  varied  in  character,  so  wide  in  its  scope 
and  so  incapable  of  measurement  from  statistical  data  available, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  give  even  an  approximate  estimate  of 
its  economic  return.  That  the  food  and  clothing  crisis  was  met 
and  passed  without  serious  suffering  is  sufficient  evidence  of 
its  value. 

Another  aspect  of  this  work  was  the  “cottage  cheese  cam- 
paign.” This  work,  directed  by  the  dairy  department,  stimu- 
lated the  consumption  of  cottage  cheese,  a by-product  of  the 
dairy  industry,  and  partially  utilized  for  human  food  an  over 


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supply  of  skimmilk  which  always  obtains  during  the  flush  season 
of  the  year  in  the  principal  distributing  centers. 


FIG.  13.— WHERE  HOME  DEMONSTRATION  AGENTS  HELPED 
Women  agents  were  active  in  a third  of  the  counties  in  the  conservation  drive. 


County  Agents  Carry  Load 

To  carry  out  the  food  production  program  it  was  necessary 
to  have  active  leaders  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  To  this  end 
the  county  representative  system  was  more  completely  developed. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  301 


Emergency  food  agents  were  supplied  from  special  funds  set 
aside  by  Congress  under  the  terms  of  the  Food  Stimulation  Act. 
The  College  of  Agriculture  sent  many  of  its  students  into 


PIG.  14.— WHERE  THE  COUNTY  AGENTS  SERVED'  IN  1917 
The  war  found  a third  of  the  state  organized  for  systematic  crop  production. 


the  fields  prior  to  the  passage  of  the  draft  act,  thus  releasing 
its  professors  to  take  up  emergency  work  in  the  counties  not 
supplied  with  regular  county  agents.  Hence,  less  than  a month 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  found  the  agricultural  forces 
already  mobilized  for  active  field  service. 


Wisconsin  Wins 


19 


Owing  to  the  need  for  men  in  military  affairs  many  of  these 
county  men  entered  the  army.  This,  together  with  the  ever 
changing  food  situation  and  the  necessity  for  keeping  all  parts 
of  the  organization  fully  acquainted  with  the  changing  needs, 


PIG.  15— ORGANIZED  TO  SERVE  IN  1918 

Into  all  parts  of  the  state,  county  agents  or  emergency  food  agents  carried  the  slogan, 
“More  Food  This  Tear  Is  Patriotism.” 


made  our  administrative  problems  varied,  numerous  and  dif- 
ficult. Frequent  conferences  of  state,  district  or  local  character 
were  necessary — and  the  need  for  properly  qualified  men  to 
fill  vacancies  in  the  organization  became  acute.  Despite  these 
handicaps  very  creditable  progress  was  made,  as  is  shown  by 
the  final  results. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  301 


When  Wool  and  Mul 
Making  Pay 


Build  a Silo 


than 


more 


It  will  pay 


ever  did 


before.  1 «i)t . ^ 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison 


More  Food  This  Year  Is  Patriotism 


FIG.  16.— SERVICE  FROM  PUBLICITY 

Accurate  information  was  ready  at  all  times  to  help  the  farmer  meet  his  war  time 

obligations. 


Publicity  Pushes  Production 

Proper  publicity  is  the  pivot  upon  which  turns  the  success 
of  any  campaign.  The  editorial  department  of  the  college  did 


Wisconsin  Wins 


21 


yeoman  service  in  the  preparation  .and  distribution  of  bulle- 
tins, circulars,  posters  and  press  material  aggregating  nearly 
2,500,000  copies: 

28  extension  circulars  958,750  copies 

13  station  bulletins  266,350  copies 

4 poster  bulletins 40,000  copies 

20  special  publications  1,255,600  copies 


Grand  total  2,480,700  copies 


MG.  17.— NO  HYPHENATED  AMERICANISM  HERE 

A group  of  Indian  farmers  leaving  the  hall  at  Black  River  Palis  after  participating  in 
discussions  on  “Better  Farming.” 


Meetings — the  Educational  Medium 

As  usual,  the  initial  impulse  was  given  to  all  campaigns  of 
production  and  conservation  through  meetings  of  men  and 
women.  The  college  forces  held  298  meetings  which  were  at- 
tended by  80,000  people  in  addition  to  the  numerous  special 
meetings  held  by  county  and  home  demonstration  agents  and 
boys’  and  girls’  club  workers.  Neither  does  it  include  innumer- 
able meetings  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  state  and  county 
councils  of  defense,  each  of  which  contributed  to  the  main 
object  of  “ helping  to  win  the  war.” 

Boys  and  Girls  Do  Their  Bit 

Nearly  40,000  boys  and  girls  did  their  part  by  producing 
and  saving  nearly  $750,000  worth  of  food  products.  The  var- 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  301 


FIG.  18.— BOYS  AND  GIRLS  DID  THEIR  BIT 

More  than  40,000  young  folks  enjoyed  their  clubs.  They  saved  or  produced  nearly 
$1,000,000  worth  of  food  products. 


Wisconsin  Wins 


23 


ious  lines  of  club  work  undertaken  by  these  young  people  is 
sufficiently  suggested  by  the  names  given  to  the  clubs : Canning, 
sewing,  bread,  corn,  potato,  garden,  poultry,  pig,  calf,  sheep, 
sugar  beet  and  baby  beef  clubs. 

Income  and  Farm  Accounts 

A growing  interest  in  the  keeping  of  an  accurate  set  of  farm 
accounts  as  a basis  for  the  statement  of  income  required  by 
state  and  federal  authorities  is  apparent  among  farmers.  More- 
over, the  farmer  must  be  led  to  adopt  business  methods,  just 
the  same  as  in  any  other  business.  An  account  of  stock  must  be 
taken  annually  which  with  income  and  outgo  makes  it  possible 
to  determine  readily  whether  the  farm  is  a paying  or  a losing 
venture.  During  the  year  just  closed  such  books  were  kept 
on  677  Wisconsin  farms  through  the  instrumentality  of  farm 
management  clubs,  organized  by  the  agricultural  economics 
department.  That  this  work  is  of  prime  importance  at  the 
present  time  is  evident  from  the  necessity  for  accurate  records 
which  must  form  the  basis  for  any  just  form  of  income  taxation 
imposed  by  both  state  and  federal  government. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  301 


FIG.  20—  CORN  AND  PIGS  GO  TOGETHER 

Out  of  the  corn  clubs  established  in  1906  has  grown  a $100,000  club  activity.  Two 
thousand  boys  took  part  in  this  work  in  1918. 


Published  and  distributed  under  Act  of  Congress,  May  8,  1914,  by  the  Agri- 
cultural Extension  Service,  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin, K.  L.  Hatch,  Assistant  Director,  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture cooperating. 


Bulletin  302 


August,  1919 


Service  to  Wisconsin 

Annual  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Experiment  Station 
for  1916-17  and  1917-18 

H,  L.  RUSSELL  and  F.  B.  MORRISON 


NEW  SOILS  BUILDING  MAKES  LARGER  SERVICE  POSSIBLE 

Room  for  the  expansion  of  the  Soils  Department,  the  State  Soils  Lab- 
oratory, and  the  State  Soil  Survey  has  been  made  possible  since  the  com- 
pletion of  larger  quarters. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Introduction  3 

Experimental  work,  by  departments 5-63 

Agricultural  bacteriology  45-46 

Agricultural  chemistry  34,  49,  52-60 

Agricultural  economics  36-38 

Agricultural  engineering 35 

Agronomy 24-33 

Animal  husbandry  54,  60-63 

Dairy t 48-49 

Economic  entomology 17-20 

Genetics  34-35 

Horticulture  5-7, 14,  20-23 

Plant  pathology 9-13, 15-16 

Soils 38-45 

Veterinary  science  50-51 

Publications  64- 

Digest  of  station  publications  

Technical  articles 


Financial  statement 


Service  to  Wisconsin 

Diseases  levy  a heavy  tax.  Taxes  are  never  popular.  They 
are  rarely  paid  gladly,  even  though  we  may  realize  that  we  get 
good  returns  in  protection  to  life  and  property  and  in  conven- 
ience and  security  of  living. 

Against  taxes  that  are  unnecessarily  laid  on  us,  however,  we 
have  the  right  to  rebel.  Yet  year  after  year  we  continue  to 
pay  the  penalty  for  indifference,  apathy,  stupidity,  and  negli- 
gence. Diseases,  both  plant  and  animal,  continue  to  levy  an 
annual  toll  not  only  on  us,  but  on  our  possessions.  We  know 
that  much  of  this  loss  is  preventable,  yet  the  toll  of  many  millions 
of  dollars  a year  continues  to  be  exacted  and  we  go  on  suffering 
the  penalty. 

Is  it  worth  while  to  develop  better  blood  and  pedigreed  seed, 
to  work  our  improved  cultural  practices,  and  then  let  disease 
constantly  drain  our  resources? 

The  war  has  been  won  but  not  yet  paid  for.  Much  can  be 
done  toward  canceling  the  debt  if  the  preventable  losses  that 
continually  reduce  our  resources  are  checked.  Science  has  not 
by  any  means  answered  all  the  problems  that  have  been  put  up 
to  her,  and  yet  the  solution  science  offers  to  a great  many  ques* 
tions  is  not  being  widely  utilized  at  present. 

The  discovery  of  the  necessary  methods  of  control  such  as 
are  involved  in  the  development  of  resistant  strains  of  cabbage 
and  localized  soil  disinfection  with  onions,  resembles  the 
struggle  recently  concluded  in  the  great  war,  where  a new  type 
of  gas  attack  had  to  be  met  by  developing  a new  method  of 
controlling  it.  On  these  Wisconsin  fields  it  is  continually  a 
process  of  discovering  and  applying  on  a wide  scale  the  methods 
of  control  that  are  necessary  to  hold  these  parasitic  enemies  in 
check. 

While  the  scope  of  the  work  of  the  Experiment  Station  covers 
all  fields  of  agricultural  science  and  will  be  reported  on  later, 
some  very  important  findings  have  been  made  by  this  station 
the  last  two  years  in  the  field  of  plant  diseases  and  their  control. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


EIG.  1.— DISEASE  RESISTANT  AND  SUSCEPTIBLE  TOBACCO  GROWN  ON 
TOBACCO-SICK  SOIL 

Varieties  of  tobacco  which  resist  the  root-rot  disease  are  being  developed:  1,  a 
resistant  Wisconsin  type;  2,  a resistant  Burley  (Kentucky)  type;  3,  an  ordinary  Wis- 
consin type;  and  4,  an  ordinary  Burley  type. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


5 


The  Relation  of  Soil  Temperatures  to  Plant  Root  Diseases 

Climate  influences  in  a marked  degree  the  occurrence  or 
severity  of  plant  diseases,  as  is  strikingly  illustrated  with  potato 
and  cabbage  diseases  in  Wisconsin.  Most  plant  diseases  are 
due  to  parasitic  fungi  or  bacteria.  Unless  the  germs  of  these 
are  present  the  disease  cannot  occur,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  parasite  often  develops  serious  disease  only  when  climatic 
(conditions  are  favorable. 

Moisture  and  temperature  exert  the  most  marked  effect.  For 
instance,  in  1915  during  a season  which  was  peculiarly  cool  and 
moist,  the  fungus  (Phytophthora  infestans)  causing  the  late 
blight  of  potatoes  destroyed  some  millions  of  dollars’  worth  of 
Wisconsin  potatoes,  producing  the  worst  outbreak  for  at  least 
a decade.  As  a result,  the  seed  used  the  next  year  generally 
carried  the  infection  to  all  fields;  yet,  by  reason  of  the  dry  hot 
weather  of  that  season,  the  parasite  was  so  completely  held  in 
check  that  even  the  potato  specialist  had  to  search  the  fields 
diligently  with  a magnifying  glass  to  find  a trace  of  the  trouble. 

By  way  of  contrast,  in  1915,  alongside  these  sick  potato  fields 
in  Wisconsin,  the  cabbage  crop  was  everywhere  vigorous,  even 
on  the  worst  “cabbage  sick”  soils.  The  fungus  causing  cabbage 
sickness,  the  Fusarium  organism,  thrives  poorly  under  cool  and 
moist  conditions  but  luxuriantly  in  hot  weather.  Under  the 
dry  heat  of  1916  it  was  observed  that  these  same  cabbage  fields 
were  swept  by  the  “yellows”  disease  as  if  by  fire.  In  view  of 
such  experiences,  it  has  seemed  highly  important  to  investigate 
further  the  influences  of  temperature,  and  especially  soil  tem- 
perature, as  a limiting  factor  in  the  occurrence  of  other  plant 
diseases.  With  cabbage  yellows  the  parasite  is  stimulated  by 
soil  temperatures  above  62.5°F.  Root  rot  of  tobacco,  caused 
by  another  soil-inhabiting  fungus  (Tkielavia  basicola),  accord- 
ing to  J.  Johnson  (horticulture)  responds  in  a quite  different 
way  to  variations  in  soil  temperature.  The  low  temperatures 
which  serve  to  check  the  development  of  the  cabbage  parasite 
permit  an  aggressive  development  of  the  tobacco  organism. 
Contrariwise,  a rise  in  soil  temperature  stimulates  the  cabbage 
parasite,  but  checks  the  tobacco'  parasite.  Fortunately,  the 
tobacco  plant  thrives  at  the  higher  soil  temperature.  The  out* 
come  is  that  with  infested  soil  the  tobacco  root-rot  will,  during 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


A B 

FIG.  2.— HEAT  CHECKS  ROOT-ROT  DISEASE 

Both  of  these  tobacco  plants  were  grown  on  “tobacco  sick”  soil  and  became  badly 
diseased.  “A”  was  then  transferred  to  a high  soil  temperature  (86°  F.)  and  “B”  to  a 
medium  soil  temperature  (68°  F.).  The  new  roots  growing  from  the  diseased  stump  of 
“A”  did  not  become  infected  whereas  those  of  “B”  rotted  as  rapidly  as  produced,  thus 
checking  development  of  the  plant. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


7 


the  cool  spring  period,  develop  severely  in  the  seed  bed,  which 
fact  emphasizes  the  importance  of  steaming  the  soil  in  such  seed 
beds  to  sterilize  them.  Transplanted,  the  disease  is  worse  during 
the  early  part  of  the  summer,  when  the  soil  is  cooler,  and  may 
thus  hold  the  development  of  the  plant  almost  entirely  in  check. 
If,  however,  the  soil  warms  up  sufficiently,  in  late  July  or 
August,  the  parasite  is  checked,  while  at  the  same  time  this 
higher  temperature  stimulates  the  normal  growth  of  the  tobacco 
with  the  net  result  that  in  early  August  a field  which  had  before 
appeared  almost  hopelessly  diseased  will  suddenly  forge  ahead 
and  make  a moderate  crop. 

This  relatively  new  suggestion  in  the  field  of  plant  pathology 
seems  likely  to  afford  a more  satisfactory  explanation  for  the 
rise  and  decline  of  certain  plant  diseases  than  has  heretofore 
been  presented.  The  additional  facilities  of  a controlled  temper- 
ature regulation  which  the  experiment  station  has  installed  this 
year  will  enable  these  studies  to  be  prosecuted  vigorously. 

Disease  Resistant  Strains  of  Tobacco  Developed 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  relation  worked  out 
by  Mr.  Johnson  between  temperature  and  the  development  of 
the  root-rot  disease  of  tobacco.  Working  in  a cooperative  rela- 
tionship with  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  (tobacco 
investigations)  he  has  enlarged  the  scope  of  his  work  materially 
so  as  to  cover  the  entire  tobacco-growing  area  of  the  United 
States. 

Already  especially  promising  individual  plants  have  been 
obtained  in  the  selection  of  disease-resistant  strains.  While 
success  has  been  secured  in  growing  these  strains,  the  curing 
qualities  have  not  yet  been  tested  finally,  but  all  indications 
point  toward  the  commercial  success  of  this  work.  Especially 
interesting  results  which  may  have  much  practical  importance 
have  been  secured  by  crossing  the  resistant  Little  Dutch  variety 
upon  the  very,  susceptible  White  Burley  type,  with  the  idea  of 
combining  the  resistant  characteristic  of  the  Little  Dutch  with 
the  “white”  characteristic  of  the  Burley  strain.  The  first  gen- 
eration of  these  crosses  yields  all  green  plants,  which  were 
found  intermediate  in  resistance.  The  second  generation  shows 
a range  in  variation  as  regards  resistance  equal  to  that  which 
obtained  between  the  two  parents.  Some  of  the  second  genera- 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


tion  were  also  found  to  be  “white.”  Results  of  these  cross- 
breeding trials  indicate  that  resistance  appears  to  follow  the 
Mendelian  laws  of  inheritance  with  respect  to  leaf  and  color 
of  the  “white”;  that  is,  reduced  chlorophyll  character  is  found 
to  be  recessive.  So  far,  a resistant  white  Burley  type  has  been 
secured  by  these  means  although  as  yet  nothing  is  known  of 
its  commercial  value.  The  method,  however,  suggests  an  im- 
portant way  of  developing  resistant  strains. 


fig.  3.— tanks  in  which  the  temperature  can  be  controlled 

Cold  water  is  circulated  around  the  pots  at  low  temperature  while  the  higher  tem- 
peratures are  obtained  by  heating  the  water  by  steam  or  electrical  units.  The  different 
plants  are  grown  in  these  temperature-controlled  pots. 

Other  studies  of  the  influence  of  environmental  conditions  on 
the  development  of  root-rot  disease,  have  been  made  on  the 
influence  of  soil  moisture,  physical  texture  of  the  soil,  amount 
of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  the  relation  of  fertility,  the 
amount  of  infection  in  the  soil,  and  the  influence  of  relative 
acidity.  The  soil  fungus  unquestionably  develops  best  at  rela- 
tively low  temperatures  and  appears  to  be  almost  entirely  checked 
under  higher  temperature  conditions.  Moisture  does  not  seem 
to  play  any  important  part  in  producing  infection  unless  the 
saturation  point  is  practically  reached.  The  other  environmental 
factors  do  not  appear  to  be  more  than  of  minor  value. 

In  rotation  experiments  the  tobacco  root-rot  fungus  has  been 
found  to  attack  practically  all  leguminous  plants,  but  it  infects 
some  very  much  more  than  others.  Cowpeas  and  soybeans  are 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


9 


seriously  attacked  and  undoubtedly  it  would  be  unwise  to  use 
them  in  rotation  with  tobacco  on  soil  infested  with  root-rot,  al- 
though experimental  evidence  has  not  yet  been  secured  on  this 
point.  Clover  and  alfalfa  do  not  appear  to  be  seriously  attacked, 
but  they  do,  no  doubt,  aid  in  maintaining  the  parasite  in  the  soil. 


FIG.  4.— A RESISTANT  CABBAGE  PLANT  READY  FOR  SEED  HARVEST 

The  heavy  branches  are  supported  by  tying  to  stakes.  Nearly  1,000  pounds  of  “resist- 
ant” seed  were  available  for  planting  in  1919. 


Cabbage  Yellows  Controlled  Through  Disease  Resistance 

Kraut  varieties.  The  success  which  has  attended  the  efforts 
of  the  Plant  Pathology  Department  in  developing  a commercial 
strain  of  winter  cabbage  which  is  able  to  withstand  the  in- 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


roads  of  “cabbage  yellows”  has  led  to  similar  efforts  with  the 
kraut  varieties  of  cabbage.  With  the  Brunswick  and  All  Sea- 
sons varieties  efforts  have  been  successful.  One  of  these 
new  strains  of  All  Seasons  tested  in  1917  and  again  in  1918 
possesses  a very  high  degree  of  resistance,  practically  equal  to 
that  of  the  Hollander  variety.  It  is  uniform  in  type,  and  of 
excellent  kraut  quality.  A committee  of  the  National  Kraut 
Packers’  Association,  one  of  whose  members  is  a Wisconsin 
packer,  has  assumed  the  responsibility  for  increasing  the  amount 
of  this  new  resistant  strain  on  a commercial  scale. 

Winter  varieties.  The  Hollander  or  winter  strain  that  L.  R. 
Jones  (plant  pathology)  in  earlier  years  has  so  successfully 
developed  to  resist  the  Fusarium  yellows  has  been  further  im- 
proved, making  it  more  uniform  of  type  and  earlier  in  ripening. 
While  these  desirable  qualities  were  being  developed  it  has  been 
tested  on  sick  soil  to  preserve  its  resistance  to  disease. 

Seed  of  this  type  has  been  multiplied  through  the  efforts 
of  the  Racine  growers’  committee,  so  that  approximately  1000 
pounds  was  available  for  1919  planting. 

Seed  as  a Source  of  Cabbage  Black  Leg  Disease  Infection 

J.  C.  Walker  ( plant  pathology)  made  in  1917  a series  of 
observations  indicating  very  clearly  that  cabbage  seed  not  dis- 
infected can  transmit  the  black  leg  disease  ( Phoma  ling  am)  in- 
fection from  one  year  to  the  next.  For  example,  in  two  fields 
planted  to  resistant  Hollander  strains  undisinfected  and  disin- 
fected seed  (treatment  1 part  formaldehyde  to  240  parts  water, 
20  minutes  exposure)  was  used.  Two  weeks  after  transplanting 
the  black  leg  was  noted  in  the  field  planted  with  the  untreated 
seed  and  during  the  course  of  the  summer  developed  to  the 
point  of  destroying  over  one-half  of  the  crop,  while  that  planted 
with  the  treated  seed  remained  free. 

The  field  data  of  1918  indicate  that  the  recommended  formalde- 
hyde seed  treatment  is  not  sure  to  kill  all  the  fungus  which  has 
penetrated  the  seed  coats.  Experiments  are  now  under  way  in 
the  laboratory  testing  .the  comparative  value  of  seed  treatment 
with  formaldehyde,  corrosive  sublimate,  and  dry  heat. 

When  obtaining  disease-free  mother  seed  for  increase,  the 
careful  selection  of  healthy  mother  seed  plants  and  disease-free 
seed  pods  is  highly  important. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


11 


FIG.  5.— FORMALDEHYDE  CONTROLS  ONION  SMUT 

The  two  rows  in  the  center  are  untreated.  The  rest  of  the  field  was  treated  with  for- 
maldehyde by  means  of  a drip  attachment  on  the  seeder. 


FIG.  6.— FORMALDEHYDE  MULTIPLIES  CROP  BY  FOUR 

Three  crates  of  onions  from  two  untreated  rows;  nearly  13  crates  from  the  rows  where 
formalin  at  the  rate  of  1 ounce  to  a gallon  of  water  was  applied  to  185  feet  of  drilled 

row. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


$59  Outlay  Yields  Over  $3000  Profit 

This  sounds  like  an  Aladdin  story.  Yet  N.  Grabher  of  Racine, 
the  owner  of  two  onion  fields  aggregating  11.8  acres,  says  that 
the  application  of  formaldehyde  with  his  onion  seeding  netted 
an  increased  yield  of  3380  bushels  at  a cash  outlay  of  $59.  R. 
E.  Vaughan  (plant  pathology)  used  on  this  farm  the  method 
previously  described  (Bulletin  250,  Director’s  Report  1914)  of 
local  disinfection  with  formaldehyde  of  the  soil  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  onion 
seed.  The  onion  plant  is 
highly  susceptible  to  the  smut 
organism  just  as  the  seed  ger- 
minates. After  the  root  sys- 
tem is  established  resistance 
is  increased.  Therefore,  if 
the  soil  can  be  locally  disin- 
fected in  the  vicinity  of  the 
seed,  the  disease  can  be  readily 
controlled. 

Brine  Bath  Removes  Rye 
Ergot 

The  disease  of  rye  called  er- 
got has  been  known  a long 
time.  It  causes  a reduced 
yield  by  replacing  the  kernels 
and  blasting  the  flowers.  It 
fig.  7.  treating^  rye  to  remove  js  furthermore  highly  objee- 

...  . a .. . „ . . tionable  because  of  some  poi- 

After  running  the  rye  through  a brine  1 

tank,  the  seed  can  be  readily  dried  on  can-  sons  mixed  with  the  grain.  It 
vas  or  a barn  floor.  ° 

has  been  claimed  that  abor- 
tion is  caused  by  the  use  of  rye  infected  with  this  organism. 
The  disease  is  transmitted  to  the'  new  crop  by  ergot  mixed  with 
the  seed.  Since  these  black  ergot  bodies  do  not  infect  the  sound 
kernels  themselves,  the  seed  may  be  used  with  safety  if  the  ergot 
is  removed. 

When  rye  and  ergot  are  stirred  into  a 20  per  cent  salt  brine 
bath  (40  pounds  salt  to  25  gallons  water)  the  good  kernels 
sink  and  the  ergot  with  light  kernels  and  some  weak  seeds  rise 
to  the  top,  where  they  can  be  readily  skimmed  off.  A.  G.  John- 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


13 


son  (plant  pathology)  has  found  that  if  the  brine  is  drawn  off 
promptly  its  action  for  such  a short  time  has  no  effect  upon  ger- 
mination, providing  the  ex- 
cess salt  is  removed  by  rins- 
ing the  cleaned  seed  in  two  or 
three  changes  of  fresh  water. 
The  removal  of  the  salt  stick- 
ing to  the  seed  is  necessary  to 
rapid  drying. 


For  several  seasons  there 
has  been  a marked  develop- 
ment of  barley  stripe  disease 
in  the  state.  This  is  particu- 
larly noteworthy  in  the  south- 
eastern and  lake  shore  coun- 
ties where  it  has  been  noted  in 
previous  years  in  small 
amounts.  The  unusually  cool 
spring  favored  the  develop- 
ment of  the  disease  and  A.  G. 
Johnson  (plant  pathology), 
working  with  emergency  food 
agents,  county  representa- 
tives, and  field  scouts  of  the 
United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  found  a wide- 
spread infection  of  barley 
fields.  In  some  fields  only  a 
trace  of  stripe  was  found, 
while  as  much  as  40  to  50  per 
cent  was  discovered  in  others. 
In  all,  540  fields  were  exam- 
ined and  5.2  per  cent  of  all  of 
the  plants,  were  found  to  have 
the  stripe. 


FIG.  8.— BARLEY  STRIPE  TAKES  HALF 
THIS  CROP 

One  hundred  plants  were  pulled  as  they 
came  In  the  row;  the  50  “striped”  or  dis- 
eased plants  at  the  left,  the  50  healthy 
plants  at  the  right. 


Since  this  disease  develops  more  extensively  in  cool  soils, 
it  might  be  thought  that  it  could  be  avoided  if  barley  were 
planted  later,  but  when  this  is  done  the  crop  not  only  matures 


Stripe  Disease  of  Barley  In- 
creases in  Wisconsin 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


later  but  is  usually  attacked  by  the  stem  rust  so  that  it  seems 
more  desirable  to  combat  the  stripe  disease  by  seed  treatment  and 
early  sowing. 

Recommendations  for  treatment  now  offered  are:  After 

thoroughly  cleaning  the  seed,  soak  for  two  hours  in  a formalde- 
hyde solution  (1  pint  of  formaldehyde  to  30  gallons  of  water), 
drain,  and  spread  out  to  dry.  Plant  as  soon  as  dry  enough, 
or  dry  thoroughly  if  seed  is  to  be  stored.  This  treatment  will 
control  covered  smut  perfectly  and  will  greatly  reduce  stripe 
and  loose  smut  with  certain  varieties,  particularly  Wisconsin 
Pedigree  No.  9. 


FIG.  9—  CERTAIN  SOILS  MAY  BE  OVERSTERILIZED  FOR  BEST  PLANT  GROWTH 

Pot  A was  a virgin  sandy  loam  unsterilized ; B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F,  were  heated  to 
240°  F.  for  10,  20,  40,  80,  and  160  minutes  respectively.  Plant  growth  decreased  with 
the  length  of  heating. 

Heating  Soils  Affects  Plant  Growth 

Soil  sterilization  is  now  widely  practiced  by  the  tobacco 
growers  of  the  state.  J.  Johnson  (horticulture)  has  conducted 
extensive  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  determining  more  defi- 
nitely the  reason  for  the  increased  growth  of  plants,  and  their 
temporary  retardation  on  heated  soils.  For  this  purpose  a wide 
variety  of  soils,  plants,  temperatures,  and  conditions  have  been 
used.  The  results  are  of  special  value  from  the  standpoint  of 
plant  disease  studies  conducted  on  heated  soils. 

When  soil  is  sterilized  by  heat,  plant  food  is  not  only  rendered 
more  available  but  gradually  becomes  more  available  due  to 
increased  activity  of  soil  microorganisms.  Compounds  injurious 
to  plant  growth  are,  however,  produced  at  the  same  time  and 
these  are  believed  to  be  largely  ammonium  compounds.  On  the 
other  hand,  these  injurious  compounds  are  gradually  lost,  and 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


15 


their  disappearance  is  found  to  be  due. to  the  activity  of  micro- 
organisms. The  temperature  of  the  soil  and  other  environmental 
factors  are  largely  influential  in  determining  the  rate  at  which 
this  injurious  property  disappears.  Types  of  injury  have  been 
found,  other  than  checking  seed  germination  and  plant  growth, 
which  closely  resemble  injury  from  plant  parasites.  The  injur- 
ious action  is  much  more  marked  in  some  soils  than  in  others, 
and  some  plants  are  more  susceptible  to  it  than  others.  The 
temperatures  to  which  the  soil  is  heated,  and  in  some  cases  the 
length  of  time  the  soil  is  heated,  determines  the  extent  of  the 
injurious  action.  Fig.  9 shows  tomatoes  grown  in  a virgin 
sandy  loam  heated  to  240°  F.  for  various  lengths  of  time. 


o jo  too 

&/u.c  or  rcc*  ' 


SPREAD  OE  RUST 

rnon 

BARBERRY 


FIG.  10.— HOW  BARBERRY  BUSHES  SPREAD  RUST 

A barb-rry  hedge  was  infected  with  rust;  at  200  feet  there  was  a 10  per  cent  infection  of 
a quack  grass  meadow. 


Barberry  Spreads  Grain  Stem  Rust 

During  the  spring  and  summer  of  1918  an  intensive  study  of 
the  grain  stem  rust  problem  in  Wisconsin  was  undertaken  by 
A.  G.  Johnson  and  J.  G.  Dickson  (plant  pathology),  the  chief 
object  being  to  accumulate  more  definite  and  detailed  data  upon 
the  role  of  the  common  barberry  ( Berberis  vulgaris)  in  the 
spread  of  the  stem  rust  of  grains  ( Puccinia  graminis) . This 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


work  was  in  cooperation  with  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  was  correlated  with  the  barberry  eradication  campaign 
of  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  similar  campaigns 
carried  out  in  neighboring  states  of  the  northern  Mississippi 
valley.  The  spread  of  the  rust  from  the  old  rusted  straw  to 
the  barberry  and  subsequent  spread  from  the  barberry  to  the 
new  grain  crops  and  grasses  was  definitely  observed  at  about 
50  selected  stations.  In  each  case  the  original  infection  was 
traceable  directly  to  infection  on  barberries.  In  no  case  was 
early  rust  infection  on  grains  or  grasses  noted  apart  from  in- 
fections on  the  barberry. 

The  observations  on  the  distribution  of  stem  rust  are  in  line 
with  the  fact  that  there  are  three  specialized  strains  on  the 
grains.  The  wheat  strain  grows  only  upon  varieties  of  wheat 
and  barley,  the  rye  strain  only  upon  varieties  of  rye  and  barley, 
and  the  oat  strain  only  on  varieties  of  oats.  These  three  strains 
also  go  to  several  wild  grasses  and  all  go  to  the  barberry,  but 
from  the  barberry  will  rust  only  their  special  host  again. 

Plant  Disease  Survey  Shows ’Need  of  Disease  Control 

An  extensive  plant  disease  survey  was  carried  out  in  1918  by 
membes  of  the  Plant  Pathology  Department  in  ooperation  with 
the  various  county  agents,  emergency  food  agents,  and  field 
scouts  from  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office 
of  Cereal  Disease  Investigations  and  Plant  Disease  Survey. 
Nearly  3600  observations  were  made,  very  largely  on  different 
cereal  and  potato  diseases. 

The  survey  brought  out  the  fact  that  frequently  farmers  do 
not  realize  the  extent  to  which  their  crops  are  damaged  by  these 
insidious  fungus  enemies;  for  example,  a 10  to  15  per  cent  in- 
fection with  barley  stripe  often  went  unnoticed  and  unchecked. 

The  return  of  Wisconsin  to  a prominent  place  among  the 
wheat-growing  states  brings  out  the  importance  of  checking  the 
start  of  stinking  smut  (bunt)  and  other  enemies  of  this  crop. 
In  one  field  as  high  as  60  per  cent  of  the  heads  were  destroyed 
by  this  fungus,  and  in  many  fields  2 to  4 per  cent  of  infection 
was  seen.  The  disease  can  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  formalde- 
hyde solution. 

The  plant  disease  survey  has  given  us  information  upon  the 
diseases  and  the  localities  where  the  message  of  plant  disease 
control  may  be  carried  with  profit  in  succeeding  years. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


17 


W.  H.  Wright  and  J.  W.  Brann  of  our  staff  were  engaged  in 
a cooperative  survey  with  the  federal  department  during  the 
summer  of  1918.  As  a result  of  their  work  an  early  outbreak 
of  potato  late  blight  was  detected  in  Barron  county  on  August  13. 
A spraying  campaign  was  at  once  started  by  the  county  agent, 
R.  L.  Cuff,  which  aided  greatly  in  checking  the  disease. 


FIG.  11.— WHEN  THE  WEALTHY  APPLES  ARE  IN  FULL.  BLOOM 

The  zones  into  which  the  state  is  divided  for  spraying  are  based  on  approximate  dates. 
Half  the  apple  crop  is  lost  because  of  codling  moth  and  the  plum  curculio. 


Late  Spraying  of  Apples  Prevents  Worm  Injury 

The  codling  moth  and  the  plum  curculio  take  half  the  value 
of  the  apple  crop.  Experimental  work  carried  on  in  the  in- 
sectary and  in  orchards  by  C.  L.  Fluke  and  L.  G.  Gentner  (eco- 
nomic entomology)  at  five  different  points  in  the  state  has  shown 


2 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


that  the  present  spray  schedules  were  not  properly  timed  to 
exert  the  greatest  effect  on  the  destruction  of  larvae.  In  general, 
it  has  been  the  custom  to  apply  the  last  spray  from  July  25  to 
August  1,  but  breeding  experiments  and  field  observations  for 
the  last  three  years  show  that  an  additional  treatment  should 
have  been  made  before  the  middle  of  September,  or  that  the 
application  should  have  been  delayed  until  August  10  or  15. 

From  breeding  cage  experiments,  Mr.  Fluke  finds  that  the 
maximum  number  of  eggs  of  the  second  generation  are  not 
deposited  until  the  first  week  in  September  (1917)  or  the  last 
week  in  August  (1918). 

Due  to  the  variation  in  time  of  blossoming,  it  is  impossible  to 
give  any  specified  dates  for  spraying;  if  the  trees  are  late  in 
developing  the  moth  is  also  likely  to  be  delayed.  The  first  two 
sprays  are  to  be  applied  on  the  basis  of  bud  development,  and 
from  this  it  is  easy  to  compute  time  of  the  other  applications. 
The  general  order  of  procedure  recommended  is: 

1.  “Pink”  spray,  applied  when  the  buds  are  breaking  in  the 
cluster  and  show  pink;  to  be  applied  at  Madison  (Zone  2)  for 
a normal  season  about  May  15.  For  other  zones  this  date  would 
vary  (See  fig.  11).  Use  arsenate  of  lead  powder,  2 pounds  to 
50  gallons  of  water,  adding  5 quarts  of  lime  sulfur  for  control 
of  scab. 

2.  Calyx  spray,  applied  when  petals  have  fallen  and  before 
calyx  cup  closes.  Same  spray  as  in  (1),  except  that  only  one 
pound  of  arsenate  of  lead  instead  of  two  is  used. 

3.  Second  moth  spray,  about  two  weeks  later,  using  same 
spray  as  in  (2). 

4.  Summer  spray  about  55  days  after  second  moth  spray, 
using  lead  arsenate  powder  1 to  50. 

Codling  Moth  Sprays  Control  the  Plum  Curculio 

Experimental  work  in  breeding  cages  and  observations  in  the 
field  by  the  Economic  Entomology  Department  have  shown  that 
the  plum  curculio  does  its  maximum  amount  of  damage  to  apples 
during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall.  If 
the  codling  moth  is  not  present,  two  sprays  of  lead  arsenate 
1 to  50  (a  calyx  spray  and  a second  one  a week  later)  will  suffice 
to  control  the  curculio.  The  demonstration  spraying  for  the 
codling  moth  indicates  that  the  schedule  for  controlling  this 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


19 


pest  is,  under  normal  conditions,  satisfactory  in  controlling  the 
curculio. 

Worms  Ravage  the  Cabbage  Crop 

For  the  last  three  years  the  imported  cabbage  worm  has  been 
an  abundant  and  destructive  pest  not  only  in  gardens  but  in 
commercial  fields.  In  numerous  cases  fully  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  the  crop  has  been  destroyed.  Treating  the  crop  is  not 
a difficult  problem  but  the  grower  often  fails  to  spray  because 
of  the  supposition  that  sprayed  cabbage  is  dangerous  to  the 
consumer. 


FIG.  12.— CABBAGE  WORMS  DESTROY  VALUABLE  FOOD  CROP 

The  untreated  head  (right)  was  lost;  the  other  head  was  sprayed  twice  with  arsenate 
of  lead,  1 pound  to  50  gallons. 


Arsenates  of  lead  and  lime,  also  arsenite  of  zinc,  used  both 
in  wet  and  dry  form,  were  employed  by  L.  G.  Gentner  (economic 
entomology).  Wet  sprays  were  found  to  be  more  effective,  and 
ordinary  resin  laundry  soap  (1  pound  to  50  gallons)  proved 
satisfactory  in  making  the  spray  stick  to  the  waxy  surface  of 
the  cabbage  leaf.  Either  arsenate  of  lead  or  calcium  arsenate 
(50  gallons  water,  1 pound  powdered  arsenate,  1 pound  resin 
soap,  dissolved)  applied  three  times  (July  15,  August  15  and 
September  10)  was  found  to  be  effective.  In  the  dust  spray 
1 pound  of  poison  is  used  with  10  pounds  of  air-slaked  lime 
when  the  dew  is  on  the  leaf. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


A chemical  examination  made  of  sprayed  and  unsprayed  heads 
showed  that  there  is  no  danger  of  arsenical  poisoning  from  this 
treatment  when  the  outer  leaves  of  the  plant  are  removed. 

Make  Tests  of  Insecticides 

The  high  cost  of  chemicals  due  to  war  conditions  has 
made  necessary  a careful  study  of  the  comparative  worth  of 
various  insecticides  that  can  be  used  more  or  less  interchange- 
ably. The  Economic  Entomologj^  Department  has  investigated 
the  four  leading  insecticides,  paris  green,  arsenite  of  zinc,  ar- 
senate of  lead,  and  arsenate  of  lime.  In  these  tests  the  grubs 
of  the  potato  beetles  were  used  to  compare  the  killing  power  of 
the  various  poisons. 

Hydrogen  arsenate  of  lead  was  found  to  give  nearly  as  good 
results  as  paris  green,  both  destroying  the  grubs  within  three 
hours.  Commercial  arsenate  of  lead  gave  slightly  poorer  results, 
as  did  arsenite  of  zinc.  Arsenite  of  zinc  did  not  cause  any  ap- 
parent injury  to  potato  vines,  but  did  produce  some  burning  of 
apple  foliage.  Arsenate  of  lead  had  no  bad  effect  on  the  foliage 
of  either  the  potato  or  the  apple.  These  insecticides  may  be 
used  as  substitutes  for  paris  green,  if  varying  conditions  are 
taken  into  consideration.  The  high  cost  of  paris  green  at  the 
present  time  makes  the  consideration  of  this  matter  of  economic 
importance. 

Fertilizers  Affect  Cherry  Production 

The  cherry  interests  in  Door  County  some  years  ago  asked  for 
the  inauguration  of  experimental  work  to  determine  the  limiting 
plant  food  factors  in  cherry  production.  Tests  were  begun  by 
the  Horticultural  Department  in  1914  on  an  8-year  old  Early 
Richmond  orchard,  planted  20  by  20  feet  on  silt  loam  of  lime- 
stone origin,  t3Tpical  of  most  of  the  cherry  soils  in  that  district. 
Fertilizers  were  applied  annually,  nitrogen  being  added  in  the 
form  of  three  pounds  of  dried  blood  and  one  pound  of  sodium 
nitrate  to  each  tree ; phosphorus,  seven  pounds  of  acid  phosphat< 
to  each  tree;  and  potassium,  three  pounds  of  sulfate  of  potash. 
Clean  cultivation  was  practiced  and  for  two  seasons  a cover  crop 
of  oats  was  sown.  In  the  other  years,  weed  growth  was  relied 
upon  to  furnish  the  necessary  cover. 

Yield  records  were  taken  in  1914,  1915,  and  1917.  In  1916 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


21 


and  1918  severe  winter  injury  practically  destroyed  the  crop. 
The  most  definite  results  obtained  by  R.  H.  Roberts  and  G.  F. 
Potter  (horticulture)  from  this  experiment  indicate  the  value 
of  the  nitrogenous  fetilizer  used  either  alone  or  in  combination 
with  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Although  no  crop  Was  harvest- 
ed in  1916,  the  foliage  and  vigor  of  the  trees  showed  the  distinct 
advantage  of  the  nitrogen  plats.  In  1917,  the  average  yield 
from  each  tree  on  the  check  plat  was  65.4  pounds  of  fruit,  while 
those  on  the  plat  receiving  nitrogen  alone  gave  82.5  pounds 
Plats  receiving  nitrogen  showed  an  increase  in  yield,  while  tree; 
to  which  only  potash  and  phosphorus  were  added  showed  m 
gain  over  check  plats. 

The  use  of  the  nitrogenous  fertilizer  also  seemed  to  produce  a 
change  in  the  fruiting  habit  of  the  tree.  Trees  receiving  nitro- 
gen carried  a large  proportion  of  their  crop  on  two-  and  three- 
year  old  spurs.  Trees  receiving  no  nitrogen  produced  their  fruit 
almost  entirely  from  lateral  buds  on  one-year  old  wood.  For 
best  fruiting  with  the  cherry  it  is  desirable  to  have  as  many 
spurs  as  possible  developed.  When  the  growth  of  the  tree  is 
such  that  new  wood  is  short,  all  of  the  buds  on  the  one-year  old 
wood  become  fruit  buds,  and  consequently,  spurs  cannot  develop. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  tree  is  vigorous  and  the  new  growths 
exceed  a foot  in  length,  many  of  the  lateral  buds  then  develop 
into  spurs.  It  is  therefore  evident  that,  for  highest  production, 
the  cherry  must  be  encouraged  to  produce  rather  long  seasonal 
growths,  which  occur  most  markedly  in  the  trees  receiving  nitro- 
gen. 

This  increased  growth,  however,  raises  another  problem — that 
of  keeping  the  tree  within  bounds  and  low  enough  so  as  to  make 
spraying  and  harvesting  easier.  It  is  thus  evident  at  once  that 
the  question  of  maintaining  maximum  fruiting  and  spur  produc- 
tion must  be  intimately  associated  with  pruning. 

Winter  Injury  to  Cherry  Blossom  Buds 

A difficulty  confronting  the  Wisconsin  orchardist  is  winter 
injury  to  fruit  buds.  This  occurs  frequently  with  the  cherry, 
and  at  times  may  happen  to  the  extent  of  materially  reducing 
the  crop.  Such  an  injury  occurred  in  the  winter  of  1915  and 
again  in  1917.  R.  H.  Roberts  (horticulture)  has  noted  that 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


winter  injury  occurs  most  readily  in  buds  which  are  most 
developed. 

The  primary  source  of  the  trouble  seems  to  be  located  in  the 
pith  of  developing  fruit  stems  (pedicel)  and  in  the  epidermal 
blossom  cells,  especially  in  the  sepals.  The  occurrence  of  injury 
is  evidently  related  to  the  condition  of  the  protoplasm  of  the 
succulent  plant  cells.  Cells  having  large  vacuoles  seem  to  be 
more  readily  injured  by  unfavorable  temperatures  than  those 
completely  filled  with  cell  substance  (cytoplasm),  a condition 
doubtless  due  to  the  dilution  of  the  cell  sap.  This  condition  of 
the  cell  is  closely  related  to  the  amount  of  growth  made  by  the 
fruit  spur  or  limb  upon  which  it  is  borne.  The  greatest  develop- 
ment occurs  along  the  middle  of  the  growths  from  two  to  four 
inches  long.  Less  injury  was  noted  to  basal  and  end  buds  than 
those  in  the  central  portion  of  the  shoot.  Blossom  buds  on  short 
spurs  show  much  less  injury  than  those  on  long  terminal  growths. 

This  fact  has  an  important  practical  application.  Generally 
no  spurs  are  formed  if  the  terminal  growths  are  less  than  six 
inches  long ; and  most  of  the  buds  on  a twig  develop  into  spurs 
if  the  growth  is  over  12  inches  long.  From  this  relation  of 
growth  to  spur  formation,  and  the  greater  cold  resistance  of 
blossom  buds  on  spurs,  the  necessity  of  controlling  the  rate  of 
growth  of  the  tree  largely  through  proper  soil  management  be- 
comes apparent.  Pruning  also  plays  an  important  part,  as  the 
length  of  life  of  the  spurs  is  considerably  influenced  by  the 
density  of  the  top  of  the  tree.  When  it  is  necessary  to  promote 
rather  rapid  twig  growth,  in  order  to  encourage  spur  develop- 
ment, it  is  also  necessary  to  practice  a definite  system  of  pruning 
to  keep  the  top  of  the  tree  sufficiently  open  to  insure  long  life 
and  vigor  of  the  spurs  thus  formed.  Contrary  to  the  usual 
recommendation  concerning  the  pruning  of  the  sour  cherry,  it 
has  been  found  that  much  more  satisfactory  results  can  be  se- 
cured where  a definite  system  of  rather  heavy  pruning  is  followed 
with  trees  which  are  making  sufficient  growth  to  provide  for 
maximum  production. 

Kelation  op  Pruning  Cuts  to  Wound  Healing 

Horticulturists  recognize  that  it  is  poor  practice  to  leave  any 
stubs  in  pruning  and  it  is  usually  recommended  that  in  the  re- 
moval of  branches  the  cut  should  be  made,  “parallel  to  the  sup- 


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porting  branch  or  trunk,  and  as  close  to  it  as  practicable.”  This 
necessitates  the  removal  with  the  branch  of  the  so-called  “collar” 
or  enlargement  at  its  base.  The  resulting  wound  is  thus  relatively 
large  in  relation  to  the  diameter  of  the  limb  removed. 

From  a practical  point  of  view,  however,  it  has  long  been 
recognized  that  pruning  can  be  done  with  much  less  labor  if 
the  cut  is  made  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  collar,  which  is  from 
a quarter-to-a-half-inch  away  from  the  main  branch. 


FIG.  13.— PRUNE  OUTSIDE  “COLLAR' 5 

Making-  cuts  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  collar  (right)  is  preferred  to  making  the  cut 
close  (left)  to  the  main  trunk  or  branch.  The  smaller  exposed  surface  will  heal 
quicker. 

G.  F.  Potter  and  R.  II . Roberts  (horticulture)  have  carried 
out  a series  of  tests  to  determine  the  relative  rate  of  healing. 
As  healing  of  the  wound  proceeds  largely  in  a horizontal  direc- 
tion from  the  edge  of  the  wound,  the  horizontal  diameter  is  of 
importance.  In  the  series  of  tests  referred  to  it  was  noted  on 
the  average  that  the  horizontal  dimension  was  fully  15  per 
cent  smaller  when  the  cut  was  made  at  the  outer  edge  of  the 
collar,  in  comparison  with  close  cuts  immediately  next  to  the 
tree  trunk.  The  relative  rate  of  healing  did  not  appear  to  be 
materially  different  in  the  two  types  of  cuts.  As  the  only  ad- 
vantage which  can  be  claimed  in  favor  of  making  cuts  close 
to  the  main  trunk  is  in  an  increased  rapidity  of  healing,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  method  of  making  the  cuts  at  the  outer  edge  of 
the  collar  is  to  be  preferred,  as  the  smaller  exposed  surface  will 
heal  sooner  than  when  the  cut  is  made  closer  to  the  support- 
ing branch. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


Hemp  Culture  Spreads  in  State 

Just  as  the  boll-weevil  drove  the  cotton  planters  of  the  south 
out  of  cotton  culture  and  into  peanuts  and  livestock,  so  Canada 
thistles  and  quack  grass  have  been  the  means  of  introducing  a 
new  crop  into  Wisconsin.  No  better  smother  crop  can  be  grown 
than  hemp,  and  it  was  in  trying  to  kill  these  noxious  weeds 
with  hemp  that  the  suitability  of  the  crop  to  Wisconsin  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  was  first  determined. 


FIG.  14.— NEW  HEMP  HARVESTER  MAKES  HEMP  GROWING  EASIER 

This  machine  cuts  and  spreads  the  hemp  at  one  operation,  saving  a great  deal  of 

hand  labor. 

In  cooperation  with  the  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Agronomy  De- 
partment has  since  1908  carried  out  work  on  the  adaptability 
of  hemp  as  a crop  in  this  state. 

Because  hemp  growing  cannot  be  very  successfully  carried 
out  except  where  it  is  grown  on  a large  enough  scale  to  warrant 
the  installation  of  hemp  mills,  it  requires  cooperation  to  develop 
centers  in  which  the  industry  can  flourish.  Not  less  than  300 
acres  are  needed  to  make  a nucleus  large  enough  to  warrant 


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the  building  of  a mill.  Already  Wisconsin  has  more  hemp  mills 
than  any  other  state.  In  this  state  the  crop  has  been  developed 
mainly  in  Fond  du  Lac,  Dodge,  Green,  and  Racine  counties. 

Hemp  needs  a well-drained,  fertile  soil — in  fact,  a good  corn 
soil.  By  many  it  is  thought  to  be  hard  on  land,  but  when  grown 
in  rotation  on  well-manured  ground  and  retted  on  the  soil,  it  is 
not  a hard  crop. 

An  acre  yields  about  three  tons  of  dry  stalks,  from  which 
there  is  extracted  about  1000  pounds  of  fiber,  yielding  700 


FIG.  15.— THE  NEW  HEMP  GATHER-BINDER  AT  WORK 

After  retting,  the  hemp  is  lifted  and  bound  in  bundles  in  this  newly  devised  labor- 

saving  machine. 


pounds  of  long  fiber  (line)  and  300  pounds  of  short  fiber  (tow). 
The  hemp  plant  is  particularly  free  from  all  insect  injuries,  and 
the  crop  is  worth  from  $50  to  $100  an  acre.  The  fiber  is  used 
mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  commercial  twines  and  cordage 
and  for  calking  ships.  With  the  rapid  rise  in  the  price  of  sisal 
for  binding  twine  it  was  used  as  a substitute  for  this  necessary 
supply  for  the  farmer  during  1918. 

Kentucky  has  long  enjoyed  the  distinction  of  growing  the 
best  hemp  and  producing  more  than  all  other  states  in  the  United 
States  together,  but  in  the  last  few  years  the  industry  in  Wiscon- 
sin has  grown  from  practically  nothing  to  an  area  of  over  7,000 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


acres.  Wisconsin  is  now  the  first  state  in  acreage  and  the  quality 
is  unexcelled.  The  cool,  moist,  autumn  weather  produces  a soft 
fiber  of  superior  strength.  Seed  cannot  be  normally  matured  in 
Wisconsin,  but  promising  experiments  in  breeding  an  Italian 
type  are  being  made. 

Cooperative  Marketing  Wins 

Cooperation  between  growers  does  not  automatically  occur; 
cooperation  between  growers  and  manufacturers  is  less  likely 
to  develop.  The  hemp  industry  in  this  state  affords,  however, 
a striking  exception  to  this  rule.  With  the  encouragement  of 
the  college  the  growers  and  millers  have  formed  an  association, 
known  as  the  Hemp  Order  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Associa- 
tion, the  purpose  of  which  is  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  hemp 
industry  in  all  of  its  phases.  A.  H.  Wright  of  the  Agronomy 
Department  is  secretary  of  this  order.  He  has  also  had  direct 
charge  of  the  cooperative  investigations  in  this  field. 

The  problems  of  producing  this  crop  have  offered  compara- 
tively little  difficulty,  but  the  stage  between  the  grower  and 
the  spinner  had  not  previously  been  organized  and  developed. 
Special  attention  has  been  directed  toward  the  successful  or- 
ganization of  breaking  and  cleaning  mills,  since  it  is  realized 
that  this  constitutes  the  keystone  of  the  whole  structure,  for 
unless  the  mills  can  be  made  financially  and  economically  suc- 
cessful, the  hemp  industry  cannot  long  survive.  Special  efforts 
have  been  made  to  assist  in  the  development  of  efficient  labor- 
saving  hemp  machinery,  such  as  the  hemp  harvester  and  the 
gather-binder.  The  college  has  cooperated  with  manufacturing 
concerns  which  were  financially  able  to  experiment  on  this 
problem,  and  a number  of  important  improvements  have  been 
perfected. 

Much  Money  Saved  in  Purchasing  Hemp  Seed 

As  Wisconsin  must  rely  upon  outside  seed,  it  is  important 
to  cooperate  in  the  purchase  of  this  necessity.  In  1917  the  south- 
ern seed  dealers  forced  the  price  of  hemp  seed  to  the  abnormal 
figure  of  $8  to  $14  a bushel.  The  700  hemp  growers  scattered 
over  five  counties  in  Wisconsin  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  seed 
interests.  Through  the  medium  of  the  mills,  however,  it  was 
possible  to  concentrate  this  business,  and  Mr.  Wright  was  able 


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to  purchase  between  5000  and  6000  bushels  of  seed  at  a greatly 
reduced  price.  Through  this  channel  the  seed  has  been  dis- 
tributed to  the  farmers  at  cost  and  transportation. 

The  reduction  in  the  price  of  sisal  this  year  has  menaced  the 
immediate  future  of  the  hemp  industry,  and  special  efforts  have 
been  made  to  secure  a foreign  market  for  Wisconsin  fiber. 
Sample  shipments  are  being  tested  out  in  the  English  market, 
and  through  special  government  action  on  the  matter  of  freight 
rates  it  has  been  possible  to  send  a carload  shipment  to  London 
for  testing  in  the  English  mills  on  a large  commercial  scale. 
The  development  of  this  new  market  has  assisted  in  obtaining 
a satisfactory  arrangement  for  the  disposal  of  the  Wisconsin 
crop,  which  this  year  will  aggregate  not  far  from  $1,000,000. 

A Cold-Resistant  Corn 

During  the  last  six  years  breeding  work  has  been  carried  on 
by  B.  D.  Leith  (agronomy)  in  developing  a corn  which  is  more 
resistant  to  cold  than  the  ordinary  varieties.  This  corn  has 
been  developed  from  the  Golden  Glow,  by  selecting  ears  the 
kernels  of  which  had  withstood  slight  freezing.  Experiments 
were  made  with  such  seed  where  germination  was  carried  on  in 
ice  boxes  at  a temperature  of  10°  above  the  freezing  point.  By 
continued  selection  along  this  line  it  has  been  possible  to  secure 
a strain  that  will  germinate  when  planted  about  10  days  earlier 
than  the  usual  corn  planting  time. 

In  1917  plots  of  this  strain  were  the  only  ones  at  the  station 
that  were  fully  mature  at  the  time  of  the  first  killing  frost  in 
the  latter  part  of  August.  In  1918  this  corn  again  matured 
about  one  week  earlier  than  the  original  parent  type  of  Golden 
Glow. 

Trials  made  with  this  strain  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state 
have  been  exceedingly  promising.  A sufficient  quantity  of  seed 
has  now  been  secured  with  which  to  make  more  crucial  ex- 
periments this  coming  year. 

Cardinal  King — An  Early  Ripening  Sport  of  Silver 
King  Corn 

In  our  breeding  fields  some  years  ago  there  developed  in  a 
field  of  Silver  King  a red  corn  which  was  found  to  ripen 
materially  earlier  than  the  ordinary  No.  7 or  Silver  King  strain. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


Starting  with  this  sport,  experiments  in  breeding  this  particular 
strain  have  been  in  progress  for  a period  of  eight  years.  The 
color  of  this  corn  is  a dark  red,  and  curiously  enough,  the  strain 
so  far  has  shown  an  earlier  maturity  than  the  parent  strain, 
ripening  some  two  to  three  weeks  earlier  than  the  ordinary  No. 
7.  Only  limited  trials  have  so  far  been  made  at  other  points 
than  on  the  station  farm,  but  satisfaction  has  been  reported. 
Seed  now  available  will  make  it  possible  to  test  this  much  more 
extensively  next  year. 

Salting  Corn  Aids  Drying 

In  the  fall  of  1917  the  premature  frost  in  August  resulted  in 
the  production  of  an  enormous  quantity  of  soft  corn.  Practi- 
cal trials  with  the  application  of  salt  were  reported  as  success- 
ful in  maintaining  the  keeping  quality  of  such  corn  and  pre- 
venting mold.  In  order  to  test  this  theory,  experiments  were 
made  by  H.  W.  Albertz  (agronomy)  in  which  lime  was  applied 
at  the  rate  of  12  pounds  to  each  100  pounds  of  corn  and  com- 
mon salt  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  15  and  30  pounds  to  each 
100  pounds  of  corn.  Untreated  corn  spoiled  readily,  so  that  it 
could  not  be  used  for  feed.  That  treated  with  lime  also  kept 
very  poorly.  Corn  treated  with  15  pounds  of  salt  to  each  100 
pounds  of  corn  kept  well  until  May,  but  deteriorated  later, 
while  that  to  which  30  pounds  of  salt  was  applied  was  in  good 
condition  as  late  as  July. 

Renewed  Attention  to  the  Wheat  Crop 

The  abnormal  conditions  prevailing  for  the  last  two  years 
have  greatly  stimulated  interest  in  the  state  in  the  wheat 
crop.  The  importance  of  spring  wheat  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  acreage  in  this  state  was  increased  from  145,000  acres 
in  1917  to  333,000  acres  in  1913.  For  several  years  B.  D.  Leith 
(agronomy)  has  been  continuing  work  on  developing  an  im- 
proved strain  of  the  Marquis  wheat,  and  a six-year  average  re- 
turn of  this  type  has  shown  a yield  of  35.9  bushels  per  acre. 

Wheat  at  the  Branch  Stations.  The  results  of  several  sea- 
sonsJ work  indicate  that  early  seeding  is  essential  for  good 
yields;  also,  that  excellent  results  may  be  obtained  by  the 
method  of  sowing  wheat  on  corn  stubble  or  pea  stubble  without 
plowing,  if  the  ground  is  put  in  good  condition  by  disking  and 


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harrowing.  Winter  wheat  if  sown  early  on  well-tilled  land  has 
been  more  profitable  on  the  average  than  spring  wheat. 

Tests  relative  to  time,  rate,  and  manner  of  seeding  indicate 
that  best  results  are  secured  if  the  wheat  is  planted  early  in 
September.  Best  results  with  reference  to  surviving  the  winter 
were  secured  with  wheat  that  was,  drilled  rather  than  broad- 
casted. The  heavier  seeding  of  two  bushels  to  the  acre  sur- 
vived severe  winter  conditions  better  than  seeding  with  a 
bushel  to  a bushel  and  a half  an  acre. 


FIG.  16.— WHERE  BETTER  STRAINS  OF  WHEAT  ARE  BRED 

Each  strain  must  be  cut  separately  and  capped  to  secure  accurate  experimental 

results. 


“Close”  Threshing  of  Oats  Injures  Vitality 

Many  growers  resort  to  “close”  threshing  of  oats,  thus  re- 
moving a considerable  portion  of  the  surrounding  hull,  leaving 
the  oat  grain  more  or  less  naked.  This  is  done  to  remove  the 
hulls  and  increase  the  weight  per  bushel.  The  removal  of  the 
protecting  glume  exposes  the  naked  grain  to  unfavorable  con- 
ditions in  prolonged  storage,  and  results  in  a marked  deterio- 
ration of  the  vitality  of  the  grain.  Such  practice  also  increases 
the  susceptibility  of  the  seed  to  attacks  of  disease. 

Germination  tests  made  by  A.  L.  Stone  (agronomy)  indicate 
the  marked  decrease  in  the  vitality  of  the  naked  compared  with 
the  covered  grain. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


Improved  Varieties  of  Field  and  Canning  Peas  Grown 


Two  hundred  twenty-five  new  varieties  and  strains  of  garden, 
field,  and  canning  peas  have  been  under  cultivation  at  Ashland 
by  E.  J.  Delwiche  (agronomy)  for  the  purpose  of  developing 
peas  -of  early  maturity,  greater  producing  capacity,  and  im- 
proved quality.  Of  the  canning  peaS,  two  purebred  strains  of 
the  Horsford  market  garden  variety  have  proved  themselves 


Covered  Naked 

FIG.  17.— CLOSE  THRESHING  OF  OATS  INJURES  VITALITY 

Seed  of  closely  threshed  (naked)  grain  (right)  was  largely  killed  in  storage.  Covered 
kernels  protected  by  hull  (left)  all  germinated. 


to  be  of  fine  quality  and  especially  adapted  to  the  heavy  Su- 
perior red  clay. 

Breed  Sorghum  Varieties  for  Wisconsin 

The  early  frosts  in  the  fall  of  1917  destroyed  much  of  the 
sorghum  seed  of  the  state.  Over  90  per  cent  of  the  seed  planted 
in  the  spring  of  1918  had  to  be  imported.  This  proved  later 
to  be  badly  mixed  as  to  variety,  and  was  also  found  to  contain 
more  or  less  kafir  and  other  grain  sorghums,  broom  corn,  and 


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sudan  grass.  A.  H.  Wright  (agronomy)  has  given  special  at- 
tention for  several  years  to  breeding  standard  varieties.  The 
interest  in  this  subject  has  been  greatly  stimulated  this  last 
year  by  the  sugar  shortage. 

Study  Ways  to  Prevent  Winterkilling  of  Alfalfa 

Winterkilling  continues  to  be  the  most  serious  drawback  to 
the  extension  of  alfalfa  in  this  state.  This  condition  not  only 


Covered  Naked 

FIG.  18.— CLOSE:  THRESHING'  INCREASES  DISEASE  ATTACKS 

Hull-less  oats  on  the  right  were  largely  killed  by  mold  attacks.  The  covered  kernels  on 
the  left  sprouted  vigorously. 

causes  loss  by  the  actual  destruction  of  the  plant,  and  there- 
fore by  diminishing  the  stand,  but  it  also  reduces  the  yield  by 
weakening  the'  vigor  of  the  growth  of  the  surviving  plants. 
L.  F.  Graber  (agronomy)  finds  the  two  most  successful  ways 
to  overcome  this  difficulty  are : 

1.  By  cutting  the  crop  not  later  than  the  first  week  in  Sep- 
tember in  order  to  allow  a sufficient  fall  growth  to  develop  that 
will  give  protection  to  the  roots  during  the  winter. 

2.  By  seeding  hardy  varieties,  of  which  the  Grimm,  Baltic, 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


Cossack,  and  Turkestan  are  by  far  the  most  successful.  This 
method  gives  much  more  successful  results.  Even  these  hardy 
varieties  when  cut  late  in  the  season  are  injured  to  a slight 
extent  under  our  Wisconsin  conditions. 

In  variety  tests  it  often  happens  that  the  yield  of  the  com- 
mon strains  is  fully  equal  the  first  year  to  that  of  the  hardy 
Russian  and  Asiatic  strains,  but  the  difference  in  hardiness 
which  becomes  more  noticeable  as  the  age  of  the  alfalfa  field 
increases,  results  in  a material  increase  in  crop  of  the  G-rimm 
and  Baltic  varieties  after  the  first  year.  Much  of  the  so-called 
hardy  variety  seed  that  is  on  the  market  is  found  not  to  be 
true  to  name. 

While  the  best  hardy  varieties  belong  to  the  type  producing 
variegated  blossoms,  still  variation  is  not  an  indication  of 
hardiness  in  the  plant.  Even  the  common  alfalfa  which  under 
ordinary  conditions  produces  purple  blossoms,  will  produce 
variegated  flowers  in  seasons  of  deficient  rainfall.  The  alfalfa 
plant  blossoms  much  more  freely  in  dry  weather,  and  conse- 
quently, the  variations  which  may  result  in  the  production  of 
variegated  blossoms  will  be  more  evident  where  the  field  blos- 
soms fully  than  where  flowering  is  somewhat  hindered  by  vir- 
tue of  the  increased  rainfall. 

Much  trouble  is  frequently  reported  here  in  Wisconsin  with 
reference  to  alfalfa  being  run  out  by  blue  grass.  The  idea  pre- 
vails very  commonly  that  ordinary  blue  grass  will  crowd  out 
the  alfalfa  plants  in  the  course  of  several  years.  Mr.  Graber’s 
experiments,  however,  are  seemingly  conclusive  that  the  diffi- 
culty is  due  entirely  to  winterkilling  and  not  to  the  elimination 
of  the  alfalfa  by  blue  grass.  In  our  experimental  fields  with 
common  strains  of  alfalfa,  where  winterkilling  ranged  from  10 
to  45  per  cent,  blue  grass  has  come  in  rapidly  to  refill  the  bar- 
ren areas,  while  under  the  same  conditions  with  Grimm  and 
Baltic,  not  more  than  2 to  6 per  cent  of  the  area  is  occupied 
by  grass.  Farmers  who  practice  late  fall  cutting  or  pasturing, 
especially  if  a severe  winter  season  follows,  will  find  much  of 
their  alfalfa  stand  ruined,  and  in  time  replaced  with  grass. 

Sudan  Grass  Is  Promising  Forage  Crop 

For  several  years  G.  B.  Mortimer  (agronomy)  has  been  test- 
ing the  availibility  of  sudan  grass  as  a forage  crop.  This  rela- 


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tively  new  forage  crop  promises  well  as  a hay,  especially  when 
grown  with  soybeans,  with  which  it  thrives.  One  fact  which 
hampers  the  spread  of  this  crop  is  the  excessive  price  which 
has  heretofore  been  charged  for  seed.  The  station  has  at- 
tempted to  develop  seed  which  will  mature  in  this  climate.  So 
far  it  appears  that  broadcasted  seed  ripens  earlier  and  more 
uniformly  than  that  which  is  cultivated  in  rows,  due  probably 
to  the  fact  that  when  broadcasted  the  plants  do  not  sucker  as 
freely. 


FIG.  19.— SUDAN  GRASS  IS  A PROMISING  HAY  CROP 

From  two  to  three  tons  to  the  acre  have  been  cut  on  the  station  farm,  while  from 
1,000  to  1,400  pounds  of  seed  were  secured.  Sudan  grass  thrives  with  soybeans  and 
makes  a good  roughage. 

As  a forage  crop,  experiments  on  our  station  farm  indicate  a 
yield  of  2.1  to  3.4  tons  an  acre,  while  from  1,000  to  1,400  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  acre  have  been  produced. 

Effect  of  Resting  Period  on  Germination  of  Seeds 

One  of  the  most  serious  problems  in  the  testing  of  seeds 
is  the  unsatisfactory  result  which  is  often  obtained  in 
testing  sueh  seeds  as  winter  wheat,  winter  rye,  and  timothy 
seed  of  the  current  season’s  growth  which  are  to  be  used  for 
fall  planting.  Seeds  of  this  type  require  a resting  period  be- 
tween harvesting  and  the  time  that  they  are  used  for  seeding 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


purposes.  A.  L.  Stone  (agronomy)  has  found  that  the  germi- 
nating power  of  wheat,  for  instance,  was  increased  fully  GO 
per  cent  by  two  months’  storage  after  harvesting.  Samples  of 
timothy  tested  at  frequent  intervals  for  a period  of  four  months 
showed  an  average  increase  in  germinabili'ty  of  36  per  cent. 
Obviously  this  matter  is  of  considerable  importance,  as  an  early 
germination  test  would  give  unfair  results  in  that  it  would  not 
represent  the  conditions  as  they  would  actually  develop  in 
practice. 

Nature  of  Chemical  Constituents  of  Certain  Vegetable 

Oils 

For  seven  years  experimental  work  on  the  pure-line  selec- 
tion of  soybeans  has  been  under  consideration  by  the  Genetics 
and  Agricultural  Chemistry  Departments.  From  1912  to  1917 
selections  were  made  for  high  and  low  percentage  of  oil  and 
high  and  low  iodine  number,  to  measure  the  relative  value  of 
the  qualities  of  these  oils  for  use  in  paint  manufacture.  The 
results  of  these  selections  have  shown  the  ineffectiveness  in 
breeding  strains  which  would  consistently  show  high  and  low 
oil  percentages.  In  1918  for  the  first  time,  L.  J.  Cole  found  the 
iodine  numbers  from  the  “high-selection”  line  were  distinctly 
higher  than  those  from  the  “low-selection”  line.  The  average 
iodine  number  of  56  plants  in  the  “high”  line  was  136.6, 
whereas  that  of  43  plants  in  the  “low”  line  was  only  125.1. 
As  there  is  practically  no  overlapping  in  these  high  and  low 
lines,  this  difference  is  apparently  invested  with  considerable 
significance. 

Further  study  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  determine  the 
nature  of  this  unexpected  divergence,  and  especially  its  per- 
manency. If  this  difference  upon  later  study  should  prove  to 
be  of  a permanent  nature,  it  would  seem  to  offer  a beginning 
for  the  production  of  a really  superior  strain  of  soybeans  that 
might  yield  an  oil  suitable  for  use  in  paint  manufacture. 

E.  M.  Nelson  has  studied  the  amount  of  and  the  iodine  num- 
ber of  the  oil  in  the  leaves  of  soybean  plants,  and  finds  that  in 
the  leaves,  as  in  the  seed,  these  are  subject  to  considerable 
range.  The  amount  of  ether  extract,  indicating  a relatively 
low  oil  percentage,  ranged  from  3.7  to  6.0  per  cent. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


35 


Studies  in  Natural  Cross  Pollination 

In  any  plant  breeding  work  either  from  the  standpoint  of 
scientific  study  or  practically,  it  is  extremely  important  to 
know  to  what  extent  plants  naturally  cross-pollinate  under 
field  conditions.  Very  few  exact  studies  seem  to  have  been  re- 
ported on  this  matter.  A definite  knowledge  of  the  inheritance 
of  specific  characters  of  a plant  in  question  affords  a means  of 
making  such  a study  and  of  checking  the  results  on  the  basis 
of  known  characters.  Progress  has  been  made  by  the  Genetics 
Department  along  these  lines: 

Soybeans.  It  has  been  assumed  that  about  1 or  2 per 
cent  of  natural  cross  pollination  occurs  in  soybeans.  Experi- 
ments by  L.  J.  Cole  indicate  that  it  is  probably  much  less  fre- 
quent than  that.  Pure  line  strains  with  distinctive  characters 
were  planted  alternately  in  the  same  row,  and  of  over  6,500  pods 
examined,  only  three  showed  evidence  of  a cross. 

Datura  (Jimson  weed).  Similar  experience  with  this  plant 
showed  a far  greater  amount  of  natural  cross  pollination.  Us- 
ing the  stem  color  as  a criterion,  as  this  character  can  be  read- 
ily determined  in  very  young  seedlings,  from  19,000  seedlings 
grown  for  this  test,  1.2  per  cent  developed  purple  stems,  indi- 
cating crossing. 

Effect  of  Soil  Moisture  on  Efficiency  of  Dynamite 

Much  variation  exists  in  the  cost  of  land  clearing,  depending 
upon  the  conditions  under  which  explosives,  are  used.  Experi- 
mental results  secured  by  J.  Swenehart  (agricultural  engineer- 
ing) indicate  that  it  costs  about  50  per  cent  more  to  remove 
stumps  by  the  use  of  explosives  during  the  dry  part  of  the 
summer  than  it  does  in  late  fall  when  the  soil  is  wet.  Compari- 
sons on  the  Kennan  silt  loam  at  North  Crandon  where  20  per 
cent  dynamite  was  employed,  indicated  an  average  cost  of  55 
cents  a stump  under  dry  conditions  as  contrasted  with  36  cents 
under  wet  conditions.  Where  stumps  range  from  50  to  100 
to  the  acre,  this  material  saving  in  expense  is  well  worth  con- 
sideration. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


3<5 


Farm  Labor  Problems 

Studies  of  farm  labor  conditions  in  the  state  by  the  Agricul- 
tural Economics  Department  show  a rapid  rise  in  wages  of  farm 
help  when  hired  by  the  year.  From  a low  valuation  of  $14  a 
month  in  1866,  farm  labor  in  this  state  has  increased  to  $26  in 
1910,  $36  in  1917,  $43.50  in  1918.  The  continued  scarcity  of 
farm  laborers  as  well  as  the  high  prices  of  farm  products  are,  of 
course,  explanatory  factors  in  this  recent  rapid  rise.  The 
problem  of  the  immediate  future  is  that  of  adjusting  the  wage 
rate  in  such  a manner  that  in  the  case  of  falling  prices  of  farm 
products,  the  wage  rate  will  not  be  beyond  what  the  farmer  can 
afford  to  pay. 

The  suggestion  has  been  offered  that  wages  might  well  be 
put  on  a sliding  scale,  with  a guaranty  of  the  1915  wage  scale 
and  an  agreement  to  pay  up  to  the  1918  scale  or  even  higher, 
in  proportion  to  the  prices  at  which  the  farmers  sell  staple 
products  for  1915  prices  or  above.  Such  an  arrangement  no 
doubt  would  be  equitable,  but  the  question  of  assuming  the  risk 
of  uncertainty  is  in  all  probability  one  which  would  militate 
against  the  introduction  of  the  system. 

Farmers’  Labor  Income  Under  Pre-War  Conditions 

For  five  years  farm  survey  records  have  been  kept  by  the 
Agricultural  Economics  Department  of  all  of  the  farms  in  Ve- 
rona township  in  Dane  county.  The  results  show  the  principal 
crops  grown  were  corn,  oats,  and  hay;  the  principal  products 
sold,  milk,  cattle,  and  hogs.  The  incomes  for  the  first  three 
years,  from  1913  to  1915  inclusive,  were  low,  but  in  the  main, 
rose  to  a satisfactory  level  in  1916  and  1917.  The  accompany- 
ing chart  indicates  the  labor  income  of  each  of  the  60  farms, 
and  shows  a wide  range  in  income  of  different  farmers  which 
is  explained  largely  in  the  inherent  differences  in  the  ability 
and  character  of  the  farm  operator.  It  is  a startling  fact  that 
while  some  men  are  making  good  labor  incomes,  which  have 
been  increased  under  war  conditions,  a number  have  actually 
lost  money,  even  under  war  conditions. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


37 


FIG.  20.— THE  LABOR  INCOME  OF  60  VERONA  FARMERS 

With  war  prices  most  farmers  prospered.  In  1914  only  seven  had  a labor  income  of 
more  than  $500  in  addition  to  shelter  and  food  furnished  by  the  farm,  while  in  1917  the 
number  was  46.  The  farmers  whose  incomes  are  indicated  by  the  shaded  dots  received 
food  and  shelter  ranging-  in  value  up  to  about  $500.  Tihe  white  dots  represent  the 
farmers  who  lost  money  as  well  as  their  time. 


Study  Milk  Marketing  Problems 

During  the  last  year  market  milk  studies  have  been  com- 
pleted and  results  published  in  detail  by  B.  H.  Hibbard  and 
H.  E.  Erdmann  (agricultural  economics)  in  Bulletin  285.  The 
general  result  of  this  work  indicates  that  the  farmer  receives 
at  different  timefc  from  50.5  to  62.7  per  cent  of  the  price  paid 
by  the  consumer  for  bottled  milk.  The  problems  of  reducing 
the  cost  of  delivery  have  been  experimentally  studied  this  last 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


year.  In  cooperation  with  a milk  delivery  company  of  Chicago 
experiments  were  undertaken  in  order  to  show  how  a unified 
system  of  delivery  would  result  in  a saving  over  the  present 
method  of  milk  delivery.  These  results  indicated  that  the  same 
amount  of  milk  delivery  work  could  be  secured  by  about  55 
per  cent  as  many  men  and  37  per  cent  as  many  horses  as  are 
now  used  in  the  work.  Such  changes  as  these  would  result  in 
a marked  reduction  in  the  cost  of  delivery  to  the  consumer, 
which  are  now  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  cost  of  city  milk. 

High  Schools  and  Trade  Areas  Closely  Related 

High  school  districts,  geographically  speaking,  are  scattered 
over  the  entire  country  like  ponds  and  lakes,  here  one  and 
there  one,  while  elementary  school  districts  cover  practically 
the  entire  area  of  the  national  map.  In  the  main  the  high 
school  has  been  regarded  as  an  urban  institution.  C.  J.  Gal- 
pin  (agricultural  economics.)  has  specifically  studied  the  high 
school  districts  of  the  state,  and  finds  when  these  results  are 
platted  that  seven-eighths  of  the  entire  area  of  Wisconsin  is 
outside  of  any  existing  high  school  district.  This  map  dis- 
closes the  fact  that  if  the  high  school  district  were  to  be  ex- 
tended so  as  to  cover  the  area  from  which  its  rural  students 
come,  it  would  practically  coincide  with  the  trade  area  of  the 
village  or  city  in  which  the  high  school  is  situated. 

The  elementary  school  district  map  makes  plain  that  the  par- 
ticular group  of  country  school  districts  around  each  village  or 
city  practically  coincides  with  the  village  trade  area,  and  there- 
fore with  the  possible  extension  of  the  enlarged  high  school 
district.  The  logic  of  this  situation  indicates  that  if  a closer 
relation  existed  between  the  country  schools  and  their  near-by 
high  school,  a larger  proportion  of  country  boys  and  girls  would 
attend  the  village  or  city  high  school.  A positive  force  would 
then  enter  rural  life,  cementing  more  securely  the  increasingly 
cordial  relations  of  farmers  and  townsmen. 

Soil  Acidity  and  the  Seeds  of  Plants 

It  has  long  been  recognized  that  an  acid  condition  of  the  soil 
exerts  an  unfavorable  effect  on  plant  growth,  particularly  in 
the  case  of  such  plants  as  alfalfa  and  even  clover.  The  com- 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


39 


mon  explanation  has  been  that  the  soil  acids  exert  a direct 
effect  on  the  plant,  or  at  least  on  the  legume  bacteria,  but  the 
recent  work  of  E.  Truog  (soils)  indicates  that  these  acids  pre- 
vent the  plants  from  securing  adequate  amounts  of  lime  from 
the  soil  to  meet  their  needs.  Some  plants  like  alfalfa,  clover, 
soybeans,  tobacco,  and  sugar  beets  are  exceptionally  heavy 
lime  feeders.  Mr.  Truog  finds  that  when  such  plants  do  not 
get  sufficient  lime  the  plant  saps  become  more  acid,  thus  af- 
fecting growth. 

Such  plants  as  sugar  beets,  cabbage,  rape,  and  barley,  are  as 
seriously  affected  as  the  most  sensitive  legumes,  indicating  that 
the  harmful  action  is  not  directly  due  to  an  effect  on  the  root 
bacteria. 

In  all  soils,  even  when  they  are  very  acid,  considerable  lime 
is  locked  up  in  compounds  not  readily  soluble.  If  carbonated 
water  similar  to  the  soil  solution  is  used,  lime  may  be  extracted 
even  from  strongly  acid  soils.  The  stronger  the  acidity  the 
less  lime  is  it  possible  to  extract  from  these  sour  soils. 

The  foregoing  explanation  also  makes  it  possible  to  under- 
stand why  plants  are  less  affected  by  soil  acidity  in  rich  than 
poorer  soils.  In  the  more  fertile  soils,  the  processes  incident 
to  the  growth  of  organisms  are  more  active. 

These  findings  now  make  it  possible  to  determine  by  means 
of  the  Truog  soil  acidity  test  not  only  the  relative  degree  of 
soil  acidity  but  to  recommend  in  a satisfactory  way  the  amount 
of  lime  necessary  to  use  to  produce  proper  plant  development. 

To  these  factors — the  degree  of  soil  acidity  and  the  rela- 
tive fertility  of  the  soil — is  to  be  added  the  lime  requirement 
of  each  crop  grown,  not  only  as  to  amount  but  also  as  to  the 
ease  with  which  the  necessary  amount  must  be  secured  by  the 
plant  from  the  soil. 

Alfalfa  has  a high  lime  content  and  rapid  rate  of  growth, 
and  only  a medium  feeding  power ; hence,  its  lime  requirement 
is  very  high.  Medium  red  clover  has  a lower  lime  content, 
grows  more  slowly,  and  has  a stronger  feeding  power;  hence, 
its  lime  requirement  is  lower.  Oats  have  a low  lime  content  and 
very  strong  feeding  powers ; thus,  their  lime  requirement  is  low. 

An  acid  condition  of  the  soil  indicates  that  the  supply  of 
available  lime  is  becoming  low,  making  it  difficult  for  crops 
which  have  high  lime  requirements  to  secure  the  amount  they 


♦ 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


really  need  unless  the  soil  is  limed.  The  higher  the  degree  of 
acidity,  the  lower  is  the  supply  of  available  lime;  hence,  on 
such  soils  as  these,  it  is  more  urgent  that  the  lime  be  applied 
in  sufficient  amount. 

Nature  of  soil  acidity.  Some  investigators  still  hold  that  soil 

acidity  is  not  due  to  the  presence  of  real  acids,  but  to  the  phy- 
sical property  known  as  adsorption.  Mr.  Truog  and  Mr.  Pettis 
have  taken  an  insoluble  acid  like  stearic  acid  and  subjected  it, 
and  acid  soils,  to  treatment  with  various  salt  solutions.  Such 
insoluble  acids  acted  in  a similar  manner  to  acid  soils  in  the 
treatment  with  salt  solutions.  In  these  treatments  with  salt 
solutions  the  effect  of  solvent  and  temperature  have  also  been 
studied  with  results  which  indicate  the  existence  of  real  acids 
to  be  the  cause  of  soil  acidity. 

A New  Method  for  Testing  for  Phosphorus 

The  importance  of  having  accurate  but  cheap  methods  of  de- 
termination in  soil  analysis  is  such  that  efforts  have  been  made 
during  the  past  year  by  Mr.  Truog  (soils)  to  devise  a simple 
method  of  determining  the  phosphorus  content  of  soils: 

Briefly  the  method  devised  is  as  follows:  The  phosphorus 

is  gotten  into  solution  by  igniting  the  soil  with  magnesium 
nitrate  and  digesting  with  nitric  acid.  The  resulting  solution 
is  clarified  by  centrifuging.  The  phosphorus  is  then  precipi- 
tated with  ammonium  molybdate  in  a specially  designed  tube  in 
which,  after  centrifuging,  the  amount  in  per  cent  is  read  off 
directly.  In  this  method  the  long  and  laborious  operations  of 
filtration,  evaporation  and  dehydration  have  been  entirely 
eliminated.  A complete  determination  can  be  made  in  one 
hour.  The  old  methods  require  a day  or  more. 

As  many  of  our  Wisconsin  soils  respond  markedly  to  phos- 
phatic  fertilizers,  this  method  should  be  of  much  value  in  lo- 
cating soils  most  in  need  of  phosphate  addition,  as  it  has  proved 
to  be  ideally  adapted  for  use  in  connection  with  the  State 
Soils  Laboratory. 

Colby  Silt  Loam  Needs  Drainage 

Colby  Silt  loam  is  a fine-grained,  productive  soil  but  it  has  a 
mechanical  composition  which  results  in  a relatively  poor  subsoil 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


41 


drainage.  At  the  Marshfield  Branch  Station  the  Soils  Department 
has  carried  on  tiling  to  study  effects  1,  2,  3,  and  4 rods  from  the 
tile.  The  most  striking  results  were  obtained  with  potatoes.  An 
average  for  three  years  gave  163  bushels  of  potatoes  on  land 
1 rod  from  tile  with  a gradual  reduction  to  121  bushels  on  plats 
4 rods  from  tile.  Yields  of  alfalfa  and  barley  were  also  im- 
proved somewhat  nearer  the  tile.  The  yield  of  corn  stover  on 
the  plot  4 rods  from  the  tile  was  2,790  pounds  while  that 


FIG.  21.— TILING  FOR  BETTER  YIELDS 

The  wide  strip  through  the  center  upper  field  is  four  rods  from  the  lines  of  tile  to 
the  right  and  left.  The  poor  underdrainage  at  this  distance  is  shown  by  the  missing 
hills  and  poor  growth  of  the  corn  although  the  natural  surface  drainage  on  this  por- 
tion of  the  field  is  as  good  if  not  better  than  on  the  lower  field.  (Compare  with 
Fig.  22.1 


on  the  plots  adjoining  the  tile  was  3,400  pounds,  a gain  of  22 
per  cent.  The  crop  was  frozen,  so  that  no  weights  of  ear  corn 
were  obtained. 


Management  of  Sandy  Soils 


The  large  extent  of  sandy  soils  in  a number  of  counties  in 
the  state  led  the  last  legislature  to  take  the  important  advance 
step  of  establishing  a branch  experiment  station  at  Hancock. 
This  tract  is  composed  of  medium  sand  (Plainfield)  underlain 
with  somewhat  coarser  sand,  and  has  been  under  cultivation 
for  50  years  or  more.  The  particular  tract  used  for  this  work 


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


has  been  fanned  for  the  last  15  to  20  years  by  renters.  The 
average  yield  of  rye  in  1915  was  5 bushels  an  acre,  corn  20  to 
25  bushels,  and  potatoes  75  bushels.  No  legumes  had  been 
grown  for  at  least  10  years,  and  renters  who  had  previously 
utilized  120  acres  of  this  land  were  barely  able  to  make  a living. 

Work  was  started  by  the  Soils  Department  late  in  the  spring 
of  1916,  two  rotations  being  planned.  One  was  a three-year 
rotation  of  rye  seeded  to  mammoth  clover,  hay  the  second  year, 


FIG.  22.— TILING  IMPROVES  STAND 

Where  a single  line  of  tile  runs  at  a depth  of  between  2*4'  to  3'  through  the  center 
of  the  field,  the  improvement  produced  by  the  better  underdrainage  of  the  tile  is 
shown  in  the  nearly  perfect  stand  on  the  plots  lying  along  the  lines  of  tile.  (Compare 
with  untiled,  Fig.  21.)  1 


followed  by  corn ; the  second  was  the  same  except  that  a fourth 
year  was  added  in  which  soybeans  were  planted.  The  financial 
record  as  revealed  in  the  crop  returns  for  the  last  three  years 


is  shown  here : 

1916 

1917 

1918 

Labor 

$540.00 

$745.00 

$960.00 

Fertilizer 

101.00 

157.50 

185.50 

Lime 

65.00 

121.00 

74.50 

Seed 

130.00 

145.00 

255.00 

Total  expenditures 

$836.00 

$1,168.50 

$1,475.00 

Crop  returns 

240.14 

720.00 

1,520.00 

Profit  or  loss 


—$595.86 


— $448.50  +$45.00 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


43 


The  foregoing  figures  show  at  present  an  operating  loss  of 
nearly  $1,000  in  three  years,  which  from  the  practical  view- 
point would  seem  ruinous  to  the  average  farmer.  An  inven- 
tory of  the  soil  assets,  considering  it  from  the  standpoint 
of  its  producing  ability  shows,  however,  that  this  loss  is  fully 
covered  by  the  increased  value  of  the  fertility  of  the  land. 

The  result  so  far  indicate  that  commercial  fertilizers  in  con- 
nection with  green  manuring  crops  will  produce  a material  in- 
crease in  the  yields  of  nearly  all  crops.  The  addition  of  lime 
has  proved  very  beneficial  in  building  up  these  acid  soils. 
Clover  can  be  grown  successfully  on  these  poor  sandy  soils, 
where  lime  and  either  commercial  fertilizer  or  manure  are  used. 
Good  clover  crops  mean  good  crops  of  corn  or  potatoes  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Yields  of  fall  rye  can  be  materially  increased  by 
using  either  manure  or  commercial  fertilizer  as  a top-dressing 
early  in  the  spring. 

Soybeans  have  succeeded  well  as  a catch  crop  for  feed  either 
alone  or  with  corn,  resulting  in  the  addition  of  nitrogen  to  the 
soil,  and  for  green  manuring  purposes. 

It  is  evident  that  the  sandy  lands  which  are  worn  out  through 
long  continued  cropping  can  be  renovated  so  that  crop  yields 
returned  therefrom  are  materially  in  excess  of  the  increased 
cost  of  the  fertilizers  which  must  necessarily  be  used. 

The  weather  conditions  for  the  last  three  years  have  not  been 
‘wholly  favorable.  In  1916,  a frost  killed  the  potato  vines  early 
in  September  so  that  no  crop  was  obtained,  and  it  seriously  in- 
jured the  soybeans  and  corn.  During  July  and  August,  1917 
and  1918,  drought  injured  some  of  the  crops  severely.  An 
early  September  frost  also  injured  the  more  tender  crops. 
Clover  and  alfalfa  were  winterkilled  in  the  winter  of  1917-18. 

The  importance  of  such  demonstrational  work  on  soil  types 
of  this  sort  cannot  be  overestimated.  When  the  work  was 
started,  many  of  the  farmers  in  the  vicinity  were  very  skeptical 
as  to  the  possibility  of  building  up  these  light  sandy  soils  at  a 
reasonable  cost  but  the  experiment  of  the  last  three  years  has 
demonstrated  to  many  in  this  community  the  feasibility  of  the 
plan  under  consideration. 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


Management  of  the  Superior  Red  Clay 

The  fine  texture  of  the  heavy  red  clay  along  the  southern 
shore  of  Lake  Superior  makes  it  especially  adapted  to  the  rais- 
ing of  grass  for  hay  and  pasture  as  well  as  small  grains,  but  it 
is  not  so  well  adapted  to  cultivated  crops  because  of  the  dif- 
ficulty of  keeping  it  in  good  tilth.  The  experiments  at  the 
Ashland  Branch  Station  by  the  Soils  Department  have  been 
planned  to  determine  the  special  fertilizer  needs  of  this  soil 
and  methods  of  tillage  which  will  tend  to  overcome  the  phy- 
sical difficulties.  With  wheat  following  com  in  1918  better 
results  were  obtained  upon  the  muck  plots  than  upon  clay,  wheat 
yields  ranging  from  23.75  to  27.75  bushels  an  acre. 

Tillage  Comparisons  on  Superior  Red  Clay 

Experiments  with  tillage  involved  a comparison  of  spring 
and  fall  plowing  and  a comparison  of  six-inch  fall  plowing  with 
various  other  tillage  methods.  The  tillage  treatment  was  ap- 
plied once  in  four  years  on  land  in  com.  The  use  of  the  Spauld- 
ing deep-tilling  machine  in  comparison  with  six-inch  fall  plow- 
ing gave  an  increase  of  1.6  bushels  with  a 28-bushel  to  the  acre 
barley  crop  in  favor  of  the  deep  tillage  method.  Also,  a marked 
increase  in  clover  and  timothy  hay  was  noted. 

Subsoiling  compared  with  fall  plowing  gave  a 4-bushel  in- 
crease with  a 30-bushel  crop,  in  favor  of  subsoiling,  while  in 
the  case  of  small  grains  fall  plowing  was  decidedly  better  than 
spring  treatment  of  the  land.  Clover  and  timothy,  however, 
made  a better  growth  on  spring-plowed  land  than  on  that  fall- 
plowed. 

While  the  tillage  experiments  on  the  Superior  red  clay  show  a 
marked  increase  in  favor  of  deep  fall  plowing,  it  is  noteworthy 
that  no  such  benefit  over  spring  plowing  has  been  observed  on 

the  Colby  silt  loams  at  the  Marshfield  station. 

Fertility  Tests  on  Colby  Silt  Loams 

The  Colby  silt  loam  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  import- 
ant types  in  central  and  northwestern  Wisconsin.  Occupying 
as  it  does  2,250,000  acres  or  6 per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the 
state,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  adequate  fertility 
trials  should  be  carried  out  on  the  Colby  loam. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


45 


Five-year  averages  on  corn  and  oats  are  now  obtainable  at 
the  Marshfield  Branch  Station.  On  plots  treated  with  acid 
phosphate  (750  pounds  an  acre)  F.  L.  Musbach  (soils)  reports 
the  increased  value  of  five  years’  produce  over  untreated  plots 
was  $19.77  an  acre  from  which  should  be  deducted  an  expendi- 
ture of  $8.63  for  phosphate.  The  phosphate  applied  with  the 
corn  continued  to  show  residual  effects  for  the  entire  five-year 
period. 

Tests  with  ground  limestone  applied  with  oats  on  new  seed- 
ing showed  that  consistent  increases  persisted  throughout  the 
five-year  rotation.  An  increase  in  crop  amounting  to  $17.02 
an  acre  for  the  five-year  period  was  secured  at  an  outlay  for 
limestone  of  $4.40.  In  consideration  of  the  low  cost  of  lime- 
stone, it  is  one  of  the  best  materials  to  use  for  soil  improve- 
ment on  the  Colby  silt  loam.  Potash  trials  were  also  made  but 
so  far  no  appreciable  results  have  been  obtained,  especially  with 
corn  and  oats.  Rock  phosphate  increases  the  yield  of  corn. 

Fertilizers  on  Sand 

Fertilizer  trials  started  by  the  Soils  Department  in  1917  on 
the  sandy  soils  at  Spooner  included  the  use  of  manure  reinforced 
with  varying  amounts  of  acid  and  rock  phosphate,  and  the  use 
of  potash.  The  first  year’s  trials  with  corn  showed  good  re- 
sults with  manure,  phosphate,  and  potash  (6,339  pounds  corn 
stover)  compared  with  check  plots  (4,908  pounds).  The  resi- 
dual effects  of  this  application  were  also  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing year. 

The  oat  crop  this  year  was  only  about  one-half  of  the  nor- 
mal due  to  lack  of  rainfall  in  June  and  July,  but  the  best  yield 
was  obtained  from  the  plot  receiving  manure  and  phosphate. 

Experiments  on  this  soil  type  with  potatoes  involved  the  use 
of  manure  with  and  without  mineral  fertilizers,  and  minerals 
with  clover  clippings  to  supply  organic  matter.  Plots  receiving 
no  manure  but  only  clover  clippings  for  organic  matter  produced 
almost  as  well  as  those  with  manure. 

Will  Alfalfa  Feeding  Inoculate  Manure? 

The  idea  is  common  that  if  alfalfa  hay  from  a well-inoculated 
field  is  fed  and  the  manure  distributed  on  other  fields,  the 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  -302 


manure  will  serve  to  inoculate  the  new  fields.  It  has  been 
shown  by  E.  B.  Fred  (agricultural  bacteriology)  that  in  the 
passage  of  material  containing  large  numbers  of  nodule-form- 
ing bacteria  through  the  digestive  tract  these  bacteria  are  de- 
stroyed. It  is  possible  that  small  particles  of  soil  with  adherent 
bacteria  may  be  carried  with  the  hay  and  become  mixed  with 
the  manure,  due  to  any  feed  not  eaten  by  the  animals  being 
used  for  bedding.  It  is  certain  that  any  farmer  who  relies  on 
this  method  of  inoculating  his  fields  will  be  disappointed. 

Influence  of  Acidity  on  Growth  of  Legume  Bacteria 

The  maintenance  of  soil  .fertility  involves  the  use  of  legumes 
and  the  nodule-forming  bacteria.  These  types  working  to- 
gether can  take  a portion  of  the  nitrogen  needed  by  the  plant 
from  the  air,  a source  of  nitrogen  on  which  the  farmer  can  draw 
only  by  growing  well-inoculated  legumes.  The  conditions  un- 
der which  the  bacteria  will  grbw  thus  become  as  important  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  farmer  as  those  governing  the  growth  of 
the  plant. 

A careful  study  by  Mr.  Fred  and  Miss  Davenport  (agricul- 
tural bacteriology)  has  shown  that  the  bacteria  associated  with 
alfalfa  are  very  sensitive  to  acid,  as  is  the  alfalfa  plant  itself, 
while  the  soybean  and  the  lupine  bacteria  are  far  less  affected 
by  an  acid  reaction,  as  is  well  known  in  regard  to  the  plants 
themselves.  It  thus  seems  clear  that  when  the  soil  is  favorable 
for  the  plant  pr  is  made  so,  it  will  also  be  favorable  for  the 
bacteria  associated  with  the  particular  plant.  This  fact  be- 
comes of  importance  when  there  is  considered  the  question  of 
how  long  the  bacteria  will  persist  in  the  soil  in  the  absence  of 
the  legume,  a condition  that  occurs  in  any  scheme  of  crop  ro- 
tation in  which  a legume  is  included.  The  bacteria  producing 
nodules  on  peas,  common  beans,  and  clovers  also  show  the  same 
relation  to  acidity  as  do  these  plants. 

The  Improvement  .of  Market  Milk 

There  has  been  a great  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the 
market  milk  supplied  to  the  consumer  within  recent  years. 
The  improvement  has  been  far  more  marked  in  the  large  cities 
than  in  the  smaller  cities  and  towns.  To  such  an  extent  has 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


47 


this  been  true  that  the  quality  of  milk  sold  in  New  York  and 
Chicago  excels  in  healthfulness  and  in  keeping  quality  that  sold 
in  places  much  closer  to  the  point  of  production.  This  has 
been  due  in  large  part  to  the  efficient  inspection  service  main- 
tained by  the  health  departments  of  the  larger  cities.  Through 
the  work  of  the  laboratories  the  producers  of  poor  milk  have 
been  located  and  the  field  inspectors  have  then  helped  these 
producers  to  improve  their  product.  Such  a procedure  is  neces- 
sary in  the  improvement  of  the  milk  in  any  locality.  The 
smaller  cities  have  felt  that  they  must  follow  the  methods  of 
the  larger  places.  These  have  proved  too  expensive  and  hence, 
in  most  instances,  nothing  has  been  done.  It  would  seem  that 
the  first  step  should  be  a survey  of  the  field  by  a laboratory 
examination  of  the  milk;  the  second,  an  educational  campaign. 
The  man  trained  in  the  technical  laboratory  methods  is  likely 
to  be  deficient  in  his  knowledge  of  the  practical  field  of  milk 
production  and  in  his  ability  to  do  the  best  field  work,  and  is 
likely  to  demand  a larger  salary  than  some  one  who  would  be 
satisfactory  for  Hie  field  work,  but  unable  to  do  the  laboratory 
work  as  usually  carried  out.  It  would  seem  wise,  both  from 
the  point  of  view  of  expense  and  of  good  accomplished,  to  se- 
cure a man  fitted  for  the  direct  contact  with  the  producer  and 
provide  him  with  a method  that  does  not  involve  technical 
training,  for  determining  the  best  quality  of  milk. 

Methylene  blue  reduction  test.  Such  a method,  the  methylene 
blue  reduction  test,  has  been  in  use  in  the  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries but  has  never  been  used  to  any  extent  in  this  country  be- 
cause it  has  always  been  considered  to  furnish  no  adequate  idea 
of  the  quality  of  the  milk. 

Some  work  done  by  the  Agricultural  Bacteriology  Depart- 
ment shows  that  this  method  does  measure  as  accurately  as 
any  of  the  more  expensive  and  complicated  tests  now  in  use 
the  bacterial  content  of  the  milk,  which  is  the  greatest  factor  in 
determining  its  quality.  It  would  seem  that  this  test  will  lend 
itself  to  use  in  the  smaller  cities  that  are  desirous  of  improv- 
ing their  milk  supplies  and  place  them  more  nearly  on  a level 
with  the  larger  cities,  as  far  as  their  opportunity  in  this  re- 
gard is  concerned. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


Causes  and  Prevention  of  “Leaky’’  Butter 


The  movement  of  brine  from  within  to  the  outside  of  a pack- 
age of  butter  is  spoken  of  as  leakage,  and  butter  in  which  this 
movement  is  especially  pronounced  is  styled  “leaky”  butter. 
Butter  of  this  type  loses  rapidly  in  weight,  producing  an  ex- 
cessive shrinkage.  When 
leaky  butter  is  retailed  in 
print  form,  considerable 
brine  is  forced  out,  result- 
ing in  further  decrease  in 
weight.  A.  C.  Dahlberg 
(dairy)  finds  that  “leaki- 
ness ’ ’ in  butter  is  not  af- 
fected by  the  churning  tem- 
perature or  by  the  moisture 
content  of  the  finished  prod- 
uct, but  is  due  to  the  condi- 
tion affecting  the  texture  of 
the  product.  The  conditions 
resulting  in  the  production 
of  an  open  texture  are : the 
use  of  cold  wash  water, 
working  butter  in  water,  un- 
der-working butter,  and 
highly  salting  it.  These  con- 
ditions increase  the  capil- 
lary spaces  through  which 
the  water  can  pass  and  thus 
tend  to  facilitate  leakage. 
When  butter  is  stored  in  a 
refrigerator  the  contraction  of  the  butter  fat  globules  increases 
the  capillary  space,  thus  promiting  leakage. 


FIG.  23.— LEAKY  BUTTER  INJURES 
SALE  OF  PRODUCT 

Butter  packages  packed  with  leaky  butter 
(left)  are  badly  discolored  and  depreciate 
in  value  rapidly. 


Primost  (Whey  Sugar)  as  a Substitute  Product 

Primost  consists  of  the  residues  obtained  by  boiling  whey. 
This  product,  concentrated,  keeps  well,  and  has  the  advantages 
of  replacing  a certain  amount  of  cane  sugar,  especially  when 
used  in  connection  with  glucose  as  a sugar  substitute.  Glucose, 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


49 


on  account  of  its  sticky  physical  condition,  is  hard  to  handle  in 
the  manufacture  of  candies,  and  J.  L.  Sammis  (dairy)  has 
found  that  a mixture  of  primost,  which  is  much  more  granular, 
makes  possible  the  use  of  glucose,  where  these  lower-priced 
sugars  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  candies.  During 
the  sugar  shortage  of  the  last  year,  the  use  of  these  sugar  sub- 
stitutes was  found  to  be  a matter  of  some  economic  importance. 
Such  a product  is  an  additional  by-product  which  can  be  re- 
covered from  cheese  factory  whey. 

Water-Proof  Glue  From  Casein 

The  necessity  of  securing  water-proof  glue  for  aeroplane  pur- 
poses resulted  in  cooperative  work  between  the  U.  S.  Forest 
Products  Laboratory  and  the  Dairy  Department  last  year. 
Heretofore  the  variations  in  the  ash  content  and  acidity  in 
dried  casein  appear  to  have  been  the  main  cause  of  trouble  in 
the  use  of  casein  in  the  manufacture  of  high-grade  glue.  The 
high  acid  and  ash  contents  of  many  commercial  caseins  appear 
to  be  due  to  the  use  of  excessive  quantities  of  acid  in  manu- 
facture, or  insufficient  washing  of  the  curd  before  drying. 

J.  L.  Sammis  (dairy),  applying  the  earlier  principles  which 
he  had  worked  out  on  the  influence  of  temperature  and  acidity 
on  the  curdling  of  milk,  has  been  able  to  produce  a fine  grade 
of  curd  which  possesses  the  physical  properties  that  enable  it 
to  be  washed  and  treated  satisfactorily  in  the  manufacture  of 
glue.  By  heating  skimmilk  slowly  to  a temperature  of  95° 
and  acidulating  it  with  sulphuric  acid  (1:5  solution),  a curd 
has  been  secured  which,  when  washed  with  wa/ter  warmed  to  the 
same  temperature  as  the  milk,  results  in  a product  which  can 
be  readily  pressed  and  dried.  Upon  chemical  analysis  this 
material  has  been  found  to  be  much  more  uniform  in  ash  and 
acid  content  than  caseins  previously  made. 

Specifications  prepared  in  connection  with  the  United  States 
government  were  in  use  for  the  commercial  manufacture  of 
this  material  for  the  production  of  water-proof  glue  at  the  time 
that  the  armistice  was  signed. 

Off  Flavors  in  Dairy  Products 

The  study  of  the  actions  of  metals  on  the  constituents  of  milk 
has  been  continued  by  W.  Pitz  (agriultural  chemistry),  an  ac- 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


count  of  the  bearing  which  these  have  in  the . production  of  the 
so-called  metallic  flavors  in  butter.  By  subjecting  casein  or 
milk  albumin  to  the  action  of  hydrogen  peroxide  and  iron  sul- 
phate in  salt  solutions,  he  has  been  able  to  isolate  chemical 
compounds  of  a pungent,  disagreeably  smelling  character,  which 
have  originated  from  the  proteins  of  the  milk.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  such  oxidizing  agents  and  in  the  presence  of  a metal- 
lic surface,  decomposition  by-products  can  be  produced  that 
are  volatile  in  character  and  disagreeable  in  smell  and  taste 
and  which  impart  an  off -flavor  in  butter. 

Make  Tests  for  Johne ’s  Disease 

This  very  peculiar  and  persistent  transmissible  disease  is  a 
new  menace  to  the  livestock  interests  of  the  country.  In  other 
countries  it  has  gained  considerable  headway.  It  is  estimated 
that  it  causes-  a loss  of  from  $2,500,000  to  $5,000,000  an- 
nually in  Great  Britain.  One  of  the  livestock  insurance  com- 
panies of  Denmark  has  paid  annually  losses  equal  to  3.5  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  the  animals  insured  in  the  case  of  40 
herds  of  purebred  Jerseys.  The  disease  is  known  to  exist  in 
several  localities  in  this  state.  Until  recently  it  has  been  im- 
possible to  detect  its  presence  except  by  symptoms,  apparent 
only  in  the  more  advanced  stages  of  the  disease.  Due  to  the 
impossibility  of  recognizing  the  condition  of  the  diseased  ani- 
mal until  there  had  been  great  opportunity  for  it  to  spread  to 
other  members  of  the  herd,  the  freeing  of  a herd  from  the 
disease  was  apparently  a hopeless  undertaking.  The  future 
success  of  some  of  our  finest  dairy  herds  has  been  seriously 
threatened  by  this  disease.  One  owner  has  lost  over  a dozen 
animals  in  the  last  ten  years.  Five  animals  had  to  be  removed 
from  another  herd  in  one  year  because  of  the  disease. 

The  Agricultural  Bacteriology  and  Veterinary  Departments 
have  been  making  some  exceedingly  interesting  studies  on  this 
trouble.  The  method  lately  devised  in  England  for  the  detec- 
tion of  the  disease  has  been  tried  out.  The  organism  causing 
the  disease  was  isolated.  A product  called  “Johnin”  similar 
to  tuberculin,  Avas  prepared  by  seeding  a special  culture  medium 
with  the  organism  and  incubating  the  cultures  for  eight  months. 
The  organisms  were  then  killed  by  heat  and  removed  by  filtra- 


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51 


tion.  This  harmless  product  is  injected  into  the  blood  system 
of  the  animals  to  be  examined.  In  the  case  of  an  animal  of- 
flicted  with  Johne’s  disease  a fever  is  produced  as  in  the  tuber- 
culin test. 

Five  herds,  four  of  which  were  known  to  have  the  disease, 
have  been  tested.  One  herd  in  Dunn  County  has  been  tested 
three  times  and  reactions  obtained  at  each  test.  Animals  show- 
ing no  apparent  symptoms  of  the  disease  have  reacted;  these 
have  been  slaughtered  and  the  disease  found  as  evidenced  by 
the  characteristic  intestinal  lesions.  The  causal  organism  was 
found  in  such  lesions. 

It  is  too  early  to  say  whether  or  not  this  test  will  enable  us 
to  free  a herd  from  the  disease.  This  problem  can  be  solved 
only  through  the  cooperation  of  the  livestock  owners.  We  trust 
other  cases  of  this  malady  may  be  reported  to  the  station  so 
that  this  new  diagnostic  method  may  be  tried  out  as  widely  as 
possible. 

Tuberculosis  in  Hogs  Increases 

Some  interesting  observations  have  been  made  by  the  Vet- 
erinary Science  Department  in  regard  to  the  occurrence  of 
tuberculosis  in  hogs.  A farmer  living  in  Oregon,  Dane  County, 
reported  he  had  lost  from  November  to  March,  17  hogs  in  a drove 
of  45.  A sick  pig  brought  to  the  laboratory  for  examination 
showed  generalized  tuberculosis.  A survey  of  the  farm  showed 
that  the  pigs  after  weaning  had  been  fed  skimmed  milk  separated 
on  the  farm,  ground  feed,  and  corn,  but  had  been  allowed  to 
follow  the  dairy  cattle  during  the  winter.  Fourteen  animals 
were  slaughtered.  Lesions  of  tuberculosis  were  found  in  12. 
The  lesions  were  so  extensive  in  four  animals  that  they  were 
considered  by  the  federal  inspectors  as  unfit  for  food. 

The  cows  on  the  farm  were  tested.  Eight  out  of  17  reacted, 
four  of  which  were  so  extensively  diseased  as  to  be  condemned 
as  unfit  for  food. 

Statistical  evidence  is  constantly  accumulating  which  shows 
that  tuberculosis,  of  hogs  is  on  the  increase.  The  data  collected 
by  the  federal  meat  inspectors  show  that  the  ratio  of  tubercular 
to  healthy  hogs  is  three  times  as  great  as  in  1911.  The  percent- 
age of  tubercular  hogs  at  those  abattoirs  which  draw  their 
supplies  from  dairy  districts  is  far  greater  than  at  those  drawing 
their  supplies  from  areas  where  hogs  are  not  fed  skimmilk  or 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


whey  or  allowed  to  follow  feeding  cattle,  as  is  shown  in  the 
following  figures  collected  by  one  of  the  large  packing  companies. 


Milwaukee 
Chicago  . . 
Omaha  . . . 
St.  Paul  . 
Denver  . . 
St.  Louis  . 
Ft.  Worth 


24.3  per  cent 

14.3 

9.4 

5.4 
3.1 
2.0 
0.8 


When  9 per  cent  of  the  40,000,000  hogs  slaughtered  show  the 
presence  of  this  disease,  and  2 per  cent  of  those  slaughtered  at 
Milwaukee  are  used  only  for  grease,  it  would  seem  that  it  is 
time  that  this  drain  on  our  resources  is  grappled  with  heroically. 
This  disease  places  an  enormous  tax  on  the  meat-consuming 
public.  When  the  burden  is  thrown  back  on  the  producer  of 
hogs,  as  it  should  be,  for  he  is  in  position  to  check  this  loss  almost 
entirely  by  the  use  of  methods  known  to  be  effective,  he  will 
bestir  himself  in  the  eradication  of  tuberculosis  of  hogs  as  well 
as  the  disease  in  cattle  with  which  it  is  so  closely  related. 

The  pasteurization  of  whey  is  one  phase  of  this  work  which 
every  farmer  feeding  whey  should  forward  as  much  as  possible 
by  seeing  to  it  that  the  factory  of  which  he  is  a patron  pasteur- 
izes its  whey  in  an  efficient  manner. 


Growth  of  Baby  Chicks 

In  studying  the  effect  of  different  factors  on  the  growth  of 
animals  it  is  highly  desirable  to  widen  the  experimental  basis 
on  which  such  work  is  prosecuted.  For  a number  of  years  the 
Agricultural  Chemistry  Department  has  been  studying  these 
problems  with  reference  to  mammals.  More  recently,  J.  G. 
Halpin  (poultry)  and  E.  B.  Hart  (agricultural  chemistry)  have 
endeavored  to  raise  baby  chicks  on  compounded  rations  of  puri- 
fied food  materials.  Rations  made  of  purified  casein,  dextrin, 
salts,  butterfat,  and  a minimum  amount  of  wheat  embryo  or 
alcoholic  extract  of  milk  powder  have  always  failed.  The  use 
of  the  wheat  embryo  as  a source  of  the  water  soluble  vitamine 
may  be  open  to  criticism,  on  account  of  its  inherent  toxocity,  and 
for  that  reason  yeast  has  been  substituted  for  wheat. 

As  the  baby  chick  grows  two  or  three  time  as  rapidly  as 
the  baby  rat,  from  present  results  it  would  appear  that  the 


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demands  for  water  soluble  vitamine  in  the  chick  are  unusually 
large.  Where  2 per  cent  of  yeast  is  adequate  in  water  soluble 
vitamine  content  to  produce  a normal  growth  in  the  rat,  it  takes 
five  to  six  times  this  amount  for  the  baby  chick.  Success  m this 
field  has  not  yet  been  reached,  but  it  seems  worth  while  to  con- 
tinue in  this  direction,  as  the  study  of  the  food  deficiencies  in 
the  raising  of  poultry  which  result  in  the  common  trouble  known 
as  “weak  legs”  cannot  be  attacked  until  we  have  as  sound  a 
basis  for  experimentation  as  now  obtains  with  reference  to  the 
rat. 

Lime  Requirements  for  Poultry 

Studies  on  the  calcium  requirements  for  chickens  have  been 
continued  by  J.  G.  Halpin  (poultry)  and  E.  B.  Hart  (agricul- 
tural chemistry).  Continuance  of  previous  work  has  strengthen- 
ed the  conclusion  that  soft-shelled  eggs  are  not  due  to  a lack  of 
lime,  as  is  customarily  believed.  Best  results  have  been  secured 
where  chicks  have  been  fed  oyster  or  clam  shell  in  comparison 
with  ground  bone,  calcium  phosphate,  or  precipitated  calcium 
carbonate  in  the  mash.  Inasmuch  as  the  mussel  shells,  such  as 
the  oyster  and  clam,  contain  small  amounts  of  iodine,  attention 
has  been  directed  to  this  aspect  of  the  problem  in  order  to 
determie  whether  the  idodine  content  of  mussel  shells  might 
not  be  the  cause  of  their  greater  efficiency. 

As  a check  on  this  iodine  theory,  potassium  iodine  has  been 
added  to  lime  rock  grit  as  well  as  the  calcium  carbonate.  No 
definite  results  can  yet  be  reported,  but  at  present  pens  getting 
calcium  carbonate  have  not  yielded  quite  as  many  eggs  as  those 
receiving  the  lime  salt  and  potassium  iodine. 

Another  possible  explanation  of  the  increased  efficiency  of 
shells  is  the  physical  condition  of  such  lime  salts  in  comparison 
with  the  more  finely  precipitated  phosphate  or  carbonate  of 
calcium.  Experiments  are  therefore  in  progress  in  which  the 
shell  grit  has  been  very  finely  ground  in  order  to  determine 
whether  the  mechanical  size  of  the  grit  particle  has  any  effect. 
The  tentative  progress  results  seem  to  indicate  that  the  coarser 
particles  are  retained  in  the  gizzard  longer  than  the  very  finely 
divided  material,  thus  giving  an  opportunity  for  the  action  of 
the  hydrochloric  acid  for  a longer  period  of  time  than  in  the 
case  of  the  extremely  finely  divided  material  which  readily 
passes  through  into  the  intestine. 


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Effect  of  Organic  Nutrients  on  Animal  Growth  and 
Reproduction 

During  the  last  year,  the  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Animal 
Husbandry  Departments  have  continued  their  studies  primarily 
on  the  influence  of  the  oat  plant,  and,  to  some  extent,  of  wheat 
by-products,  on  growth  and  reproduction.  In  the  work  last  year 
with  wheat  by-products,  it  was  shown  that  middlings,  starch,- 
and  corn  stover  made  a perfect  ration  for  reproduction.  This 


FIG.  24—  THE  RESULT  OF  TOO  MUCH  WHEAT  BRAN  AND  TOO  POOR  A 

ROUGHAGE 

This  cow  was  fed  a mixture  of  6 parts  wheat  bran,  4 parts  corn  starch,  and  4 parts 
corn  stover.  Miller’s  bran  disease  developed  and  the  cow  aborted  six  weeks  before 
calving  time.  Too  much  magnesium  and  too  little  lime  resulted  in  intestinal  poisoning. 

year  bran  was  used  in  the  place  of  middlings.  When  the  amount 
of  corn  stover  was  reduced  to  4 pounds  in  a ration  of  14  pounds, 
in  order  to  provide  a proper  protein  intake,  the  disease  known 
as  miller’s  bran  disease  developed.  This  was  characterized  by 
stiffness,  very  rapid  respiration,  and  miserably  poor  calves. 
Calves  upon  birth  weighed  only  from  50  to  60  pounds,  and  lived 
but  a few  hours.  The  calcium-  content  of  the  mother ’s  blood  was 
found  to  be  unusually  high,  due  to  the  excessive  intake  of 
magnesium  and  a low  intake  of  calcium. 

The  seat  of  this  trouble  is  apparently  to  be  found  in  a too 


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low  roughage  supply,  accompanied  by  an  abnormally  low  mineral 
intake,  and  in  a sense  parallels  the  earlier  experiments  which 
were  made  with  grain  straws. 

In  every  case  where  the  oat  plant  was  fed  miserably  poor 
offspring  has  resulted;  for  instance,  with  oatmeal  and  oat 
straw,  and  butterfat;  oatmeal,  casein,  butterfat,  and  oat  straw. 
This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  trouble  is  not  due  to  the 
poor  protein  or  low  vitamine  content,  but  is  a matter  of  actual 
deficiency  in  the ' mineral  elements  in  the  ration.  Where  the 
ration  has  been  fortified  with  either  calcium  acetate  or  wood 
ashes,  normal  offspring  has  resulted.  Further  experiments  are 
necessary  to  confirm  this,  but  it  is  probably  true  that  the  mam 
mineral  constituent  which  is  lacking  is  calcium.  The  working 
hypothesis  which  the  departments  are  now  studying  is  that  a 
deficiency  in  the  calcium  intake  disturbs  the  permeability  of 
the  intestinal  wall.  The  blood  stream  of  the  mother  may  carry 
an  overdose  of  the  toxic  materials  which  are  present  by  virtue 
of  the  character  of  the  nutritive  ration  to  that  extent  that  the 
young  is  poisoned  by  its  influence.  It  does  not  seem  likely  that 
the  defect  is  due  merely  to  the  lack  of  calcium  needed  in  building 
of  bone,  but  that  a more  subtle  action,  such  as  this  toxic  effect, 
is  probable. 

Oats  fed  with  corn  stover  and  other  roughages  carrying  a 
high  calcium  content  gave  no  trouble  whatever.  A good  many 
of  our  grasses,  such  as  June  grass  and  timothy,  as  well  as  the 
straws,  are  low  in  calcium.  Consequently,  the  importance  of 
these  as  materials  for  roughage  feeding  of  herbivora  makes  it 
highly  desirable  that  this  question  be  adequately  studied.  H. 
Steenbock  has  been  studying  the  spinal  cord  of  calves  produced 
on  this  ration,  and  has  found  a marked  absence  or  pronounced 
deficiency  of  the  Nissl  substance  in  the  motor  cells  of  the  nerves, 
similar  to  the  condition  described  in  the  annual  report  of  1916. 

Dietary  Properties  of  Various  Food  Materials 

The  widespread  use  of  barley  during  the  war  as  a substitute 
for  wheat  led  H.  Steenbock  and  P.  W.  Boutwell  (agricultural 
chemistry)  to  make  a detailed  study  of  the  dietary  qualities 
of  this  grain,  especially  as  to  its  vitamine  content.  The  results 
obtained  indicate  that  barley  does  not  differ  materially  from 
the  other  grains  in  the  essential  nutritive  constituents.  For 
growth  it  is  primarily  deficient  in  mineral  elements,  but  these 


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can  be  readily  obtaned  from  common  salt  and  lactate  of  lime. 
Its  proteins  are  poor  in  quality  and  it  is  deficient  in  the  fat 
soluble  vitamine.  Sixty  per  cent  of  barley  in  the  ration  suf- 
fice to  furnish  an  abundance  of  water  soluble  vitamine  for 
growth,  and  even  allows  reproduction. 

Similar  studies  have  been  carried  on  by  the  same  staff  mem- 
bers on  the  presence  of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  in  roots  and 
tubers.  Most  of  these,  such  as  sugar  beet,  and  rutabaga,  mangel, 
and  potato  have  been  found  to  contain  less  fat  soluble  vitamine 
than  the  grains.  With  root  crops  only  the  carrot  was  found  to 
be  richer.  The  use  of  roots  and  tubers  exclusively  in  connection 
with  the  diet  has  resulted  in  a high  content  of  indigestible  and 
fermentable  carbohydrates  which  in  many  cases  induced  diges- 
tive disturbances. 

Stability  of  Yitamines 

The  importance  of  vitamines  in  the  various  animal  and  human 
foods  has  been  prominently  called  to  the  attention  during  recent 
years.  It  is  highly  important  also  to  realize  what  effect  the 
various  processes  used  in  the  preparation  of  foods  exert  upon 
these  peculiar  chemical  bodies.  H.  Steenbock  and  P.  N.  Bout- 
well  (agricultural  chemistry)  found  in  plants  that  the  fat  soluble 
vitamine  is  apparently  quite  stable.  Finely  ground  alfalfa, 
incubated  at  blood  heat  with  water  in  the  presence  of  toluol 
and  then  dried,  was  found  to  suffice  for  normal  growth  as  a 
source  of  fat  soluble  vitamine.  With  butterfat,  however,  the 
relations  seem  to  be  quite  different.  Four  hours  heat  at  the 
boiling  temperature  appeared  to  destroy  entirely  this  vitamine. 


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Mineral  Requirements  of  Animals 

Ordinary  feeds  generally  contain  an  excess  of  certain  of  the 
mineral  elements  such  as  potassium,  magnesium,  and  phos- 
phorus. H.  Steenbock  and  P.  N.  Boutwell  (agricultural  chemis- 
try) have  determined  what  effect  is  produced  on  the  growth  of 
animals  by  withholding  additions  of  the  foregoing  mineral  ele- 
ments when  made  in  the  form  of  complex  salt  mixtures.  Both 
the  magnesium  and  sulphate  radicals  were  found  to  be  indis- 
pensable, at  least  for  growth.  From  this  work  it  appears  that 
not  only  are  there  deficiencies  in  rations  due  to  the  absence 
of  certain  mineral  elements  themselves,  but  it  is  highly  probable 
that  the  inter-relations  that  obtain  between  different  elements 
may  offer  a fertile  field  for  investigation. 

Metabolism  of  Mustard  Oils 

Infrequently  loss  of  farm  animals  is  occasioned  from  the 
ingestion  of  rape  seed  cake  and  other  feeds  rich  in  volatile  sul- 
phur oils.  Under  certain  conditions  these  oils  which  in  feed  are 
in  combination  are  so  changed  that  a toxic  condition  of  the 
material  develops.  W.  H.  Peterson  (agricultural  chemistry) 
has  studied  the  influence  of  mustard  oils  in  the  metabolism  of 
pigs.  With  an  actual  ingestion  of  over  .5  of  a gram  of  sulphur 
a day,  the  average  increase  in  the  urinary  sulphur  of  such  ani- 
mals was  about  .14  gram.  While  slowly  eliminated  into  the 
urine,  it  is  in  an  unoxidized  condition  and  apparently  united 
with  other  substances  in  such  a way  as  to  reduce  its  toxicity. 
This  fact  is  demonstrated  by  the  observation  that  this  oil  can- 
not be  distilled  out  of  the  urine.  The  experimental  work  in- 
dicates the  absorption  of  these  sulphur  compounds,  as  there 
is  very  little  volatile  sulphur  found  in  the  feces.  Apparently 
the  compounds  absorbed  are  slowly  eliminated  through  the  skin 
and  urine  in  unoxidized  forms,  and  in  some  cases  so  bound  to- 
gether as  to  greatly  reduce  their  toxicity. 

Synthetic  -Power  of  the  Mammary  Gland 

It  is  important  to  know  whether  the  mammary  gland  has 
a special  power  of  building  up  tissue.  Previous  studies  have 
indicated  that  the  protein  mixtures  used  as  feed  differ  markedly 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


in  their  efficiency  for  milk  production,  and  also  in  their  power 
for  growth.  Working  with  rats  on  purified  diets,  E.  B.  Hart, 
N.  E.  Nelson  and  W.  Pitz  (agricultural  chemistry)  have  studied 
certain  substances  (amino  acid  lysin)  in  order  to  determine 
whether  a protein  free  from  lysin  will  allow  milk  production 
to  proceed.  From  the  present  results  it  appears  that  an  animal 
can  build  its  young  in  the  absence  of  lysin,  probably  doing  this 
from  its  own  tissue,  but  that  the  secretion  of  milk  or  the  rearing 
of  the  young  by  the  mother  cannot  take  place.  From  a number 
of  records  it  is  apparent  that  lysin  must  be  present  for  con- 
tinued milk  secretion.  It  has  developed  that  certain  of  the  skim- 
milk  powders,  the  alcoholic  extracts  of  which  have  been  used  as 
a source  of  the  water  soluble  vitamine,  are  really  deficient  in 
this  necessary  ingredient.  This  defect,  however,  was  overcome 
by  the  use  of  yeast  as  a better  source  for  this  nutritional  factor. 
If  it  should  later  be  confirmed  that  dried  milk  powders  have 
their  water  soluble  vitamines  destroyed  at  least  in  part  by  the 
application  of  the  heat  which  is  necessary  in  their  process  of 
manufacture,  it  is  an  important  point. 

Hairless  Pigs 

In  the  experiments  of  earlier  years,  E.  B.  Hart  and  H.  Steen- 
bach  (agricultural  chemistry)  have  demonstrated  that  the 
physiological  disturbance  which  resulted  in  the  production  of 
hairless  pigs  was  associated  with  a deficiency  in  the  iodine  con- 
tent of  the  feed.  The  treatment  of  sows,  in  which  potassium 
lodid  was  added  to  the  feed,  has  now  been  successfully  used, 
not  only  in  this  state  but  elsewhere.  A number  of  our  breeders 
during  the  winter  of  1917-18  experienced  this  hairless  pig 
trouble.  While  the  exceedingly  cold  winter  and  lack  of  roughage 
were  undoubtedly  contributing  causes,  the  diet  of  animals  may 
possibly  be  an  additional  important  factor. 

Experiments  this  year  have  been  continued  on  the  use  of 
potassium  iodid  in  the  form  of  the  salt,  and  also  as  found  in 
oyster  shells,  which  are  relatively  rich  in  iodine.  It  is  highly 
desirable  that  some  common  and  cheap  material  containing 
iodine  be  secured,  although  even  at  the  present  prices  the  chemi- 
cal salt  is  not  prohibitive.  The  suggestion  is  made  that  kelp, 
which  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  marine  waters  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  might  be  used  for  this  purpose,  as  this  seaweed 


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contains  relatively  large  quantities  of  iodine,  but  the  high  cost 
of  transportation  under  existing  conditions  is  such  that  it  would 
have  no  value  over  the  use  of  the  chemical  itself. 

Further  experiments  are  in  progress  with  reference  to  the 
study  of  this  problem  in  its  relation  to  the  development  of 
goiter.  Its  occurrence  is  so  variable  that  we  should  have  at  hand 
all  the  factors  contributing  to  its  development. 

Growth  and  Maintenance  of  Swine  on  Grains  and  Roughage 

Supplements 

The  earlier  work  in  the  Agricultural  Chemistry  Department 
showed  that  swine  could  not  be  grown  on  a ration  made  of 
grains  alone,  but  where  such  feeds  were  supplemented  with 
15  to  25  per  cent  roughage,  either  in  the  form  of  clover  or 
alfalfa,  growth  and  physiological  soundness  were  maintained. 
In  this  year’s  experiments  sows  that  have  been  reared  on  grains 
and  roughage  with  no  disturbance  whatever  in  reproduction 
had  their  roughage  ration  gradually  reduced,  thus  increasing 
the  percentage  of  protein  in  the  diet.  With  mature  sows  normal 
reproduction  developed  where  a ration  composed  of  10  parts  of 
alfalfa,  40  parts  of  corn,  15  parts  of  oilmeal,  and  35  parts 
of  middlings  was  used.  Later,  the  roughage  was  entirely  re- 
moved, the  mature  animal  being  maintained  wholly  by  the  use 
of  grains  and  their  protein  concentrates.  It  has  been  pos- 
sible to  secure  at  the  first  parturition  successful  reproduction 
and  maintenance  of  physiological  function  with  mature  sows 
thus  bed  on  a grain  ration  alone,  fortified  with  no  other  material 
than  common  salt  and  the  use  of  natural  water.  It  may  be  that 
there  is  a marked  difference  between  the  relation  of  seeds  to 
growth  and  their  relation  to  maintenance,  and  that  such  factors 
as  the  content  of  mineral  materials  and  vitamines  of  seeds 
which  are  used  as  grain  feed,  may  be  adequate  for  maintenance 
but  inadequate  for  growth. 

Here  appears  an  interesting  contrast  between  herbivora,  such 
as  cattle,  and  omnivorous  animals,  as  the  hog.  It  is  impossible 
to  have  successful  reproduction  with  the  cow  on  cornmeal  and 
a roughage  low  in  mineral  materials,  especially  calcium.  The 
losses  of  mineral  materials  through  intestinal  excretions  impose 
too  great  a strain  upon  such  an  animal  as  the  cow.  In  the  case 
of  the  mature  sow,  which  has  been  fed  concentrates,  due  possibly 


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to  the  low  excretory  factor  in  this  animal,  there  appears  to  be  a 
sufficient  amount  of  mineral  substance  retained,  even  in  the 
case  of  corn,  although  this  is  well  known  to  be  exceedingly  low 
in  lime  content. 

Protein  Storage  by  Swine 

In  the  rearing  of  swine  the  roughage  factor  is  extremely 
important  from  a physiological  point  of  view.  E.  B.  Hart 
(agricultural  chemistry)  has  found,  however,  that  roughage 
acts  as  a depressant  in  the  matter  of  obtaining  a high  retention 
of  nitrogen  storage  in  the  body.  The  poor  and  inefficient  pro- 
teins of  corn  can  be  made  more  efficient  by  bringing  into  the 
ration  25  per  cent  of  the  total  protein  as  milk  protein,  thereby 
increasing  the  efficiency  of  corn  proteins  from  25  per  cent  to 
65  per  cent.  Whey  proteins  constituting  only  16  per  cent  of 
the  ration  were  found  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  cereal  grain 
proteins  from  25  to  47  per  cent.  The  introduction  of  roughage, 
such  as  alfalfa,  into  the  ration,  however,  lowers  the  efficiency 
of  the  corn-milk  protein  mixture  from  65  to  45  per  cent.  In- 
quiries of  this  sort  should  establish  the  least  amount  of  suitable 
roughage  that  can  maintain  physiological  health,  but  at  the 
same  time  lessen  to  the  lowest  possible  point  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  which  is  excreted  from  the  intestine. 

Various  Protein-Rich  Concentrates  for  Milk  Production 

The  comparisons  of  the  efficiency  of  various  protein-rich  con- 
centrates for  milk  production  have  been  continued  by  E.  B. 
Hart  (agricultural  chemistry)  and  G.  C.  Humphrey  (animal 
husbandry).  Gluten  feed,  linseed  meal,  corn  distillers’  grains, 
or  cottonseed  meal  have  been  added  to  a basal  ration  of  alfalfa 
hay,  cornmeal,  and  corn  silage.  Earlier  experiments  had  dem- 
onstrated that  gluten  feed  had  a low  efficiency  when  coupled 
with  cornmeal  and  corn  stover,  as  compared  with  distillers’ 
grains  and  linseed  meal.  This  difference  in  efficiency  disap- 
peared, however,  when  clover  hay  was  used  as  roughage. 

This  year  experiments  have  been  carried  on  with  alfalfa  hay, 
with  the  following  results:  Gluten  feed  and  linseed  meal  were 

equally  efficient  with  alfalfa  hay.  Distillers’  grains  had  a 
greater  efficiency  than  either  of  them,  but  cottonseed  meal 
was  the  lowest  in  efficiency  of  any.  The  effectiveness  of  distil- 


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61 


lers’  grains  was  unmistakable  in  all  experiments.  These  facts 
suggest  that  in  the  absence  of-  distillers’  grains,  an  equally  effi- 
cient protein  mixture  can  be  made  from  gluten  feed  and  germ 
oilmeal,  making  a combination  which  would  carry  approximately 
15  per  cent  of  the  latter  feed. 

The  interesting  observation  was  noted  in  these  experiments 
that  although  the  experimental  animals  declined  in  the  volume 
of  milk  secreted,  the  composition  of  the  milk  was  maintained  un- 
impaired. In  one  case  an  animal  lost  23  per  cent  of  the  total 
protein  of  her  body  and  yet  increased  in  live  weight.  This  situa- 
tion is  perhaps  somewhat  analogous  to  the  case  of  salmon  which 
under  the  stimulus  of  reproduction  may  lose  as  high  as  30  per 
cent  of  the  protein  in  their  muscle  cells,  without  showing  any 
cell  degeneration,  in  their  migration  from  the  ocean  to  the  head 
waters  of  the  rivers  which  they  seek  in  the  deposition  of  their 
eggs. 

Forage  Crops  for  Pigs 

Trials  to  compare  the  value  of  various  forage  crops  for  pigs 
under  southern  Wisconsin  conditions,  have  been  continued  by 
F.  B.  Morrison  and  G.  Bohstedt  (animal  husbandry)  at  the 
Hill  Farm.  During  the  last  three  years  pigs  self-fed  corn  and 
tankage  on  rape  pasture  have  returned  $99.21  per  acre  of  forage 
over  the  cost  of  corn  and  tankage  fed.  The  same  number  of  pigs 
self-fed  corn  and  tankage  with  no  pasture  returned  only  $53.19 
over  cost  of  feed.  Rape  pasture,  therefore,  was  worth  $46.02  per 
acre. 

In  two  years’  trials  a mixture  of  oats,  peas,  and  rape  has 
proved  slightly  more  profitable  than  rape  alone,  yielding  a re- 
turn of  $18.14  more  per  acre  on  the  average.  Red  clover  and 
alfalfa  have  been  fully  equal  to  rape,  but  not  quite  equal  to  the 
mixture  of  oats,  peas,  and  rape.  Trials  are  being  continued  to 
determine  how  many  years  a good  stand  of  Grimm  alfalfa  will 
endure  grazing  by  pigs  under  Wisconsin  conditions  and  to  find 
the  best  methods  of  pasturing  alfalfa.  Native  pasture,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  June  grass,  with  some  white  clover,  has  been  much 
better  than  no  pasture,  but  the  return  per  acre  in  two  trials  has 
averaged  $20.71  less  than  red  clover.  The  last  season  first  and 
second  year  white  sweet  clover  has  been  tested,  but  has  yielded 
somewhat  less  return  than  rape,  red  clover,  or  alfalfa. 


62 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


Value  of  Barley  Feed  and  Barley  Bran 

With  the  wide  use  of  barley  flour  during  the  war  a large 
amount  of  the  barley  by-products  became  available  for  stock 
feeding.  As  no  trials  had  been  carried  on  to  determine  the 
value  of  these  feeds,  F.  B.  Morrison,  G.  C.  Humphrey,  and  G. 
Bohstedt  (animal  husbandry)  conducted  a trial  with  3 lots 
each  of  6 cows,  fed  by  the  reversal  method  for  3 periods  each  of 
3 weeks  to  compare  the  value  of  barley  feed  and  barley  bran 
with  wheat  bran.  Barley  bran  consists  chiefly  of  the  hulls  with 
some  of  the  coarser  particles  of  the  seed  coat  of  the  barley  kernel 
that  are  removed  first  in  the  process  of  milling.  Hence,  this  feed 
is  high  in  crude  fiber,  that  fed  in  this  trial  containing  26.9 
per  cent  fiber.  On  the  other  hand,  barley  feed  consists  of  the 
bran  together  with  all  the  middlings  removed  in  milling  barley 
flour.  The  barley  feed  used  in  this  trial  was  the  by-product  re- 
sulting from  extracting  55  pounds  of  barley  flour  from  100 
pounds  of  barley  and  carried  only  11.1  per  cent  crude  fiber. 
Wheat  bran,  barley  feed,  or  barley  bran  formed  30  per  cent  of 
the  concentrate  mixture. 

When  barley  was  fed  the  yield  of  milk  was  decreased  3.86  per 
cent  from  the  yield  on  wheat  bran.  However,  when  barley  feed 
was  fed  the  yield  of  milk  was  decreased  only  0.78  per  cent.  With 
wheat  bran  at  $45  per  ton  barley  bran  was  worth  only  $29.56, 
while  barley  feed  was  worth  $42.16  per  ton.  Under  war-time 
conditions,  many  farmers  have  paid  much  too  high  a price  for 
barley  bran,  not  realizing  the  difference  in  value  between  this 
and  a good  grade  of  barley  feed. 

In  a trial  by  Messrs.  Morrison  and  Bohstedt,  barley  feed  sup- 
plemented with  tankage  proved  satisfactory  for  fattening  pigs, 
but  did  not  produce  as  rapid  or  as  economical  gains  as  ground 
barley  and  tankage.  With  barley  at  91  cents  per  bushel  ($37.92 
per  ton),  barley  feed  was  worth  only  $31.58. 

Wintering  Brood  Sows 

Experiment  station  trials  as  well  as  the  experience  of  swine 
breeders  have  shown  that  corn  alone  is  a poor  ration  for  winter- 
ing brood  sows,  being  too  low  in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  and 
producing  undersized,  weak  pigs.  Some  writers  have  gone  so 
far  as  to  state  that  corn  should  not  form  over  one-third  to  one- 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


63 


half  the  ration  for  brood  sows,  as  it  is  “too  fattening.”  To 
study  this  question,  as  well  as  other  problems  in  wintering  brood 
sows,  Messrs.  Morrison  and  Bohstedt  have  fed  several  lots  each 
of  live  pregnant  gilts  the  last  two  winters.  One  lot  was  fed  a 
mixture  of  35  pounds  ground  corn,  30  pounds  ground  oats,  30 
pounds  wheat  middlings  and  5 pounds  tankage  (meat  meal),  this 
being  a well-balanced  mixture  of  the  type  preferred  by  those  who 
do  not  like  to  feed  a large  proportion  of  corn  to  brood  sows.  This 
lot  required  4.8  pounds  per  head  daily  of  this  mixture  to  keep 
them  in  the  desired  condition.  Another  lot  was  fed  4.2  pounds 
ear  corn,  0.28  pounds  tankage,  and  what  alfalfa  hay  they  would 
eat  in  a rack.  They  consumed  1.1  pounds  per  head  daily  the 
first  winter  and  only  0.24  pounds  the  second  winter.  It  will  be 
noted  that  ear  corn  formed  the  chief  feed  of  these  sows.  How- 
ever, the  corn  was  balanced  by  the  addition  of  a small  amount  of 
tankage  and  alfalfa  hay.  ‘ The  amount  of  corn  feed  was  also 
limited  to  that  needed  to  keep  the  gilts  in  thrifty,  growing  condi- 
tion without  becoming  too  fat.  The  pigs  from  these  gilts  were 
fully  as  large  and  strong  as  from  the  first  lot  where  corn  formed 
only  35  per  cent  of  the  ration.  This  shows  that  corn  may  form 
the  main  part  of  the  ration  for  brood  sows  provided  it  is  prop- 
erly supplemented  by  feeds  such  as  skimmilk,  tankage,  and  al- 
falfa or  clover  hay,  which  are  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  mat- 
ter, especially  lime,  and  provided  the  sows  are  not  fed  so  much 
corn  that  they  become  unduly  fat. 

Another  lot  fed  merely  ear  corn  and  alfalfa  hay  gave  good  re- 
sults, but  each  year  the  proportion  of  vigorous  pigs  was  slightly 
smaller  than  where  tankage  was  added. 

Crushed  Versus  Whole  Oats  for  Work  Horses 

Continuing  previous  work  in  which  it  was  found  that  crushing 
oats  did  not  make  a saving  of  10  per  cent  of  the  grain,  Messrs. 
Morrison,  Fuller,  and  Bohstedt  fed  one  lot  of  work  horses  whole 
oats  while  their  team  mates  were  fed  95  pounds  of  crushed  oats 
for  every  100  pounds  of  whole  oats  the  first  lot  received.  Both 
lots  were  fed  the  same  amount  of  hay.  After  56  days,  the  rations 
were  reversed  and  the  trial  continued  for  another  period  of  56 
days.  In  each  period  the  horses  fed  crushed  oats  gained  very 
slightly  more  in  weight  than  their  team  mates  fed  whole  oats. 
Averaging  both  periods  together,  when  fed  whole  oats  the  horses 


64 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


gained  5.2  pounds  on  the  average  and  when  fed  95  per  cent  as 
much  crushed  oats  their  average  gain  was  8.6  pounds.  Thus,  in 
this  trial  crushing  oats  saved  just  slightly  more  than  5 per  cent 
of  the  grain. 

The  results  of  these  two  trials  show  that  the  saving  by  crush- 
ing or  grinding  oats  for  work  horses  whose  teeth  are  kept  in 
good  condition  is  much  less  than  has  often  been  claimed,  not 
amounting  to  more  than  5 or  6 per  cent. 


Publications 

Over  180,000  letters  were  written  during  the  last  two  years 
by  the  station  staff,  most  of  which  were  in  response  to  requests 
for  information.  Also,  over  56,000  pages  of  manuscript 
material  and  8,000  pages  of  stencils  were  prepared. 

During  the  two  years  twenty-three  bulletins,  four  research 
bulletins,  fifty-five  circulars  of  information  and  four  poster  bul- 
letins were  published.  In  addition,  two  bulletins,  the  supplies  of 
which  had  been  exhausted,  were  revised  and  reprinted. 

Below  is  given  a very  brief  digest  of  each  of  the  publications 
issued  under  the  auspices  of  the  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETINS 

Bulletin  271. — Rural  Clubs  in  Wisconsin  (C.  J.  Galpin  and  D.  W 
Sawtelle).  Family  clubs,  men’s  clubs,  women’s  clubs,  and  young  folks’ 
clubs  play  a large  part  in  developing  the  community  spirit  and  good 
neighboring,  which  are  such  great  factors  in  good  farming. 

Bulletin  272. — Keep  Our  Hillsides  from  Washing  (A.  R.  Whitson  and 
T.  J.  Dunnewald)  gives  suggestions  for  the  prevention  of  erosion,  or 
soil  washing,  on  Wisconsin  farms. 

Bulletin  273. — (Distribution  of  Public  iService  Stallions  in  Wisconsin 
(A.  S.  Alexander).  No  less  than  356  mongrel  or  scrub  stallions  have 
been  retired  from  service  in  Wisconsin  since  the  institution  of  the 
stallion  law  in  1906.  A directory  is  given  in  the  bulletin  of  the  owners 
of  public  service  stallions  and  jacks. 

Bulletin  27k- — Judging  Dairy  Cows  (G-.  C.  Humphrey).  A man’s 
ability  to  select  profitable  cows  will  always  be  a strong  factor  in 
worth-while  dairying.  This  bulletin  discusses  the  various  points  to  be 
considered  in  judging  dairy  cattle. 

Bulletin  275. — The  Work  of  the  Experiment  Station  and  Agricultural 
Extension  Service  for  1916  (H.  L.  Russell,  F.  B.  Morrison,  and  K.  L. 
Hatch).  A progress  report  on  the  year’s  work  embracing  the  various 
lines  conducted  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  and  of  the 
extension  work  carried  on  by  the  Agricultural  Extension  Service. 

Bulletin  276. — Correct  Payment  for  Cheese  Factory  Milk  by  the  Bab- 
cock Test  (J.  L.  Sammis)  describes  the  various  methods  of  payment 
to  be  used  in  cheese  factories,  especial  emphasis  being  laid  upon  the 
“Straight  Fat”  system. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


65 


Bulletin  277. — The  Management  of  Tobacco  iSoils  (James  Johnson) 
gives  practical  information  on  managing  the  soil  for  tobacco  culture. 
The  average  yield  and  quality  of  tobacco  in  Wisconsin  has  been  decreas- 
ing, due  partly  to  unwise  selection  and  improper  management  of  the 
soils. 

Bulletin  278. — The  Country  Church  an  Economic  and  Social  Force 
(C.  J.  Galpin).  A study  of  country  churches  with  examples  in  Wis- 
consin, and  the  life  story  of  a great  country  pastor,  John  Frederick 
Oberlin. 

Bulletin  279. — (Fertilizers  Sold  in  Wisconsin  (W.  H.  Strowd)  presents 
the  annual  list  of  the  analyses  of  licensed  commercial  fertilizers  for 
1916,  and  gives  information  on  the  materials  used  for  enriching  the 
soil,  as  well  as  a summary  of  the  fertilizer  law. 

Bulletin  280. — Potato  Growing  in  Wisconsin  (J.  G.  Milward).  The 
production  of  potatoes,  from  the  preparation  of  the  soil  to  the  harvest- 
ing of  the  tubers,  is  carefully  outlined  in  this  bulletin.  The  state- 
ments are  based  upon  successful  methods  now  in  operation  in  the  state. 

Bulletin  281. — How  Feed  Inspection  Helps  the  Farmer  (W.  H. 
Strowd)  is  the  report  for  1916  of  the  commercial  feeds  analyzed,  to- 
gether with  a list  of  the  licensed  manufacturers,  a treatise  on  the  com- 
mercial feed  law,  and  information  on  the  feeds  found  on  the  market 
during  that  year. 

Bulletin  282. — Cooperation  in  Wisconsin  (B.  H.  Hibbard  and  Asher 
Hobson).  Wisconsin  is  a leading  state  in  agricultural  cooperation. 
At  least  12  cooperative  lines  of  enterprise  in  Wisconsin  are  reviewed 
in  this  publication. 

Bulletin  283. — 'Distribution  of  Public  Service  Stallions  in  Wisconsin 
(A.  S.  Alexander).  Data  has  been  compiled  as  to  the  distribution  of 
purebred,  grade,  and  scrub  stallions  throughout  the  counties  of  the 
state.  The  1917  directory  of  owners  of  public  service  stallions  and 
jacks  is  included. 

Bulletin  284. — Tile  Drainage  on  the  Farm  (E.  R.  Jones  and  0.  R. 
Zeasman).  Profitable  farming  of  7,000,000  acres  of  land  in  Wisconsin 
depends  upon  tile  drainage.  Draining  thoroughly  with  tile  costs  less 
than  draining  with  open  ditches. 

Bulletin  285. — Marketing  Wisconsin  Milk  (B.  H.  Hibbard  and  H.  E. 
Erdmann).  The  farmer  receives  about  one-half  the  price  the  con- 
sumer pays  for  milk.  This  bulletin  treats  especially  of  the  methods 
and  economics  of  distribution. 

Bulletin  286. — Control  of  Cherry  Leaf  Spot  in  Wisconsin  (G.  W. 
Keitt)  discusses  the  cause  and  nature  of  the  most  destructive  fungus 
disease  of  the  cherry,  and  gives  measures  for  its  control  by  cultivation 
and  spraying. 

Bulletin  287. — New  Facts  on  Feeding  Cattle  for  Successful  Growth 
and  Reproduction  (E.  B.  Hart,  H.  Steenbock  and  G.  C.  Humphrey). 
Balanced  rations  are  often  deficient  in  growth-producing  elements,  even 
though  the  supply  of  protein  and  energy  be  adequate.  Mineral  matter 
is  of  great  importance  in  the  ration,  as  are  “vitamines,”  substances 
which  are  as  yet  unidentified  chemically  in  foods.’ 

Bulletin  288. — Rural  Relations  of  High  Schools  (C.  J.  Galpin  and 
J.  A.  James).  This  subject  is  divided  into  two  parts — the  social  rela- 
tions resulting  from  educating  the  farm  boy  and  girl,  and  the  relation 
of  agriculture  to  the  high  school. 

Bulletin  289. — Soybeans — A Crop  Worth  Growing  (R.  A.  Moore  and 
E.  J.  Delwiche).  A discussion  of  the  raising  of  soybeans  for  seed,  hay, 
or  forage.  This  promises  to  become  one  of  Wisconsin's  leading  sec- 
ondary crops. 


6 


66 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


Bulletin  290. — Farm  Making  in  Upper  Wisconsin  (B.  G.  Parker  and 
E.  J.  Delwiche).  Practical  hints  for  the  settler  in  northern  Wisconsin, 
as  to  the  land  to  select,  the  buildings  to  erect,  and  the  stock  and  crops 
to  raise. 

Bulletin  291. — Milk  Necessary  for  the  Nation’s  Welfare  (E.  B.  Hart 
and  H.  Steenbock)  discusses  the  value  of  milk  as  a food,  particularly 
from  the  standpoint  of  supplying  the  vitamines  so  necessary  for  growth 
and  reproduction. 

Bulletin  292. — Price  Fixing  and  the  Cost  of  Farm  Products  (H.  C. 
Taylor)  gives  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  price  fixing  of  farm 
products,  with  suggestions  as  to  what  points  should  be  considered  in 
fixing  the  price  of  any  commodity. 

Bulletin  298. — Wisconsin’s  Hemp  Industry  (A.  H.  Wright).  Although 
comparatively  new  in  Wisconsin,  the  hemp  industry  is  of  far-reaching 
importance.  The  production  of  the  fiber  in  this  state  is  fully  discussed 
in  this  bulletin. 


RESEARCH  BULLETINS 

Research  Bulletin  39. — The  Gain  in  Nitrogen  from  Growth  of  Legumes 
on  Acid  Soils  (E.  B.  Fred  and  E.  J.  Graul).  Experiments  covering  two 
years  were  conducted  to  study  the  growth  and  nitrogen-fixing  power  of 
various  legumes  on  acid  soil,  including  the  influence  on  plant  growth 
of  inoculation  and  limestone. 

Research  Bulletin  40. — Some  Economic  Factors  which  Influence  Rural 
Education  in  Wisconsin  (Eugene  Merritt  and  K.  L.  Hatch).  A study 
of  relationships  between  rural  economics  and  education,  and  types  of 
agricultural  schools  in  Wisconsin  in  general,  with  a study  of  conditions 
in  Iowa  county  in  particular. 

Research  Bulletin  Jtl. — The  Utilization  of  Phosphates  by  Agricultural 
Crops,  Including  a New  Theory  Regarding  the  Feeding  Power  of 
Plants  (E.  Truog).  A progress  report  on  the  most  economical  methods 
of  phosphate  fertilization  and  of  maintaining  the  soil  phosphates  in  a 
condition  in  which  the  crops  may  readily  use  them,  under  Wisconsin 
soil  conditions. 

Research  Bulletin  42. — Early  Blight  of  Potato  and  Related  Plants 
(R.  D.  Rands).  An  intensive  study  of  early  blight  as  it  has  occurred 
in  central  Wisconsin  during  the  past  three  years. 


Technical  Articles 


The  following  technical  articles  have  been  prepared  by  mem- 
bers of  the  station  staff  for  scientific  associations  or  technical 
journals. 

Bachmann,  F.  M.  A bacteriological  method  useful  for  the  study  of  other 
microorganisms.  Amer.  Jour.  Bot.  5:  32.  1918. 

The  use  of  microorganisms  to  determine  the  preservative  value 

of  different  brands  of  spices.  Jour.  Indus,  and  Eng.  Chem.  10:  121. 
1918. 

B.  A.  Beach  and  J.  G.  Halpin.  Observations  on  the  outbreak  of  Favus. 
Jour.  Agr.  Res.  15:  415—418.  1918. 

Binzel,  Cora  E.  Suggestive  outline  of  work  on  food  conservation  for 
home  economics  teachers.  Pamphlet  issued  by  C.  P.  Cary,  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  March,  1918. 

Bohn,  Ralph.  The  iodine  content  of  food  materials.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
27:375.  1917. 

Cole,  L.  J.  and  Wright,  W.  H.  Application  of  the  pure  lime  concept  to 
bacteria.  Jour.  Infect.  Diseases  19:  209-221. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


67 


Daniels,  Amy  L . and  Loughlin,  Rosemary.  Feeding  experiments  with 
peanuts.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  33:  295-301.  1918. 

and  Nichols,  Nell  B.  The  nutritive  value  of  the  soy  bean. 

Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  32:  91-102.  1917. 

and  Strickler,  Leola.  A comparison  of  the  digestibility  of 

starch  in  typical  batter  and  dough  mixtures.  Jour.  Home  Econ. 
9:  109.  1917. 

Fred,  E.  B.  The  effect  of  certain  organic  substances  on  seed  germina- 
tion. Soil  Sci.  6:  333.  1918. 

and  Graul,  E.  J.  The  effect  of  soluble  nitrogenous  salts  on 

nodule  formation.  Jour.  Amer.  Soc.  Agron.  8:  316-328.  1916. 

and  Davenport,  Audrey.  Influence  of  reaction  on  nitrogen- 

assimilating  bacteria.  Jour.  Agr.  Res.  14:  317.  1918. 

- — and  Loomis,  N.  E.  Influence  of  hydrogen-ion  concentration  of 

medium  on  the  reproduction  of  alfalfa  bacteria.  Jour,  of  Bact. 
2:  629.  191-7. 

Fulmer,  H.  L.  and  Fred,  E.  B.  Nitrogen  assimilating  organisms  in 
manure.  Jour,  of  Bact.  2:  423.  1917. 

Gardner,  M.  W.  Dissemination  of  the  organism  of  cucumber  anthrac- 
nose.  (Abstract)  Phytopathology.  7:  62.  1917. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  Protein  therapy.  Amer.  Jour.  Yet.  Med.  August,  1917. 

Hart,  E.  B.  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.  The  relation  of  the  quality  of  pro- 
teins to  milk  production,  III.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  31:  2.  1917. 

Further  studies  of  the  relation  of  the  quality  of  pro- 
tein to  milk  production.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  26:  457.  1916. 

, Halpin,  J.  G.,  and  McCollum,  E.  V.  The  behavior  of  chickens 

fed  rations  restricted  to  the  cereal  grains.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  29:  57. 
1917. 


, , and  Steenbock,  H.  The  behavior  of  chickens  re- 
stricted to  the  wheat  or  maize  kernel,  II.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  31:  2. 
1917. 

— and  Steenbock,  H.  Thyroid  hyperplasia  and  the  relation  of 

iodine  to  the  hairless  pig  malady.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  33:  2.  1918. 

and  Sure,  B.  The  influence  of  carbohydrates  on  the  accuracy 

of  the  Van  Slyke  method  of  the  hydrolysis  of  casein.  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.  28:  241.  1916. 

Harter,  L.  L.  and  Jones,  L.  R.  Cabbage  diseases.  U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers’ 
Bui.  925.  1918. 

Hastings,  E.  G.  Milk  clarification.  Jour.  Amer.  Med.  Assoc.  68:  899-901. 
1917. 

7 Stable  ventilation  and  tuberculosis.  Hoard’s  Dairyman  53:  472. 

1917. 

Cause  and  prevention  of  mold  on  butter.  Rpt.  Wis.  Butter- 

makers’  Assoc.  1916. 

, Beach  B.  A.,  and  Hadley,  F.  B.  The  detection  of  Johne’s  dis- 
ease by  the  use  of  Johnin.  Jour.  Amer.  Yet.  Med.  Assoc.  52:  462. 

1918. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  The  utilization  of  land  not  in  farms.  Amer.  Econ.  Rev. 

8:  55.  1918. 

Farm  tenancy  in  the  United  States.  Internat.  Rev.  of  Agr. 

Econ.  8:  No.  4.  1917. 

Grain  exchanges  and  speculation.  Nebr.  Farmer,  June  30,  1917. 

Ibsen,  H.  L.  Tricolor  inheritance  I.  The  tricolor  series  in  guinea  pigs. 
Genetics  1:  287-309.  1916. 

. Tricolor  inheritance  II.  The  Basset  hound.  Genetics  1:  367- 

376.  1916. 

. Tricolor  inheritance  III.  Tortoise-shell  cats.  Genetics  l:  377- 

386.  1916. 

and  Steigleder,  E.  Evidence  for  the  death  in  utero  of  the 

homozygous  yellow  mouse.  Amer.  Nat.  51:  No.  612,  740-752.  1917. 

Jones,  E.  R.  Standard  tests  for  drain  tile.  Proc.  3rd  Conv.  Wis.  State 
Drainage  Assoc.  1917. 

. Drainage  to  win  the  war.  Proc.  4th  Conv.  Wis.  State  Drain- 
age Assoc.  1918. 

Jones,  L.  R.  Disease  resistance  in  cabbage.  Proc.  Nat.  Acad,  of  Sci. 
4:  42-46.  1918. 


. Some  recent  advances  in  plant  pathology.  Sch.  Sci.  and  Math. 

17:  95-100.  1917. 

. Truck  crop  diseases  and  their  control.  Florist.  47:  544.  1916. 

. Disease  resistance  in  plants.  Seed  World  3:  345.  1917. 

. Graduate  teaching  and  its  relation  to  the  work  of  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  station.  30th  Proc.  Assoc.  Agr.  Col.  and  Exp. 
Sta.  30:  172-175.  1916. 

— — . Soil  temperatures  as  a factor  in  phytopathology.  Plant 
World.  20:229-237.  1917. 

— and  Bailey,  E.  Frost  necrosis  of  potato  tubers,  (Abstract). 
Phytopathology  7:  71.  1917. 

- and  Gilbert,  W.  W.  Lightning  injury  to  herbaceous  plants. 
Phytopathology  8:  270-282.  1918. 


68 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


— and  Gardner,  M.  W.  Lightning-  injury  to  crops,  (Abstract). 

Phytopathology  8:  80.  1918. 

, Johnson,  A.  G.,  and  Reddy,  C.  S.  Bacteria  of  barley  blight 

seed  borne  (abstract).  Phytopathology  7:  69.  1917. 

. . and  . Bacterial  blight  of  barley.  Jour.  Agr. 

Res.  11:  625-643.  1917. 

and 


Bacterial  blights  of  barley  and  certain 
other  cereals.  Sci.  N.  S.  44:  432-433.  1916. 

Johnson,  A.  G.  and  Coerper.  F.  M.  A bacterial  blight  of  soybean  (ab- 
stract). Phytopathology  7:  65.  1917. 

and  Davis,  W.  H.  The  aecidial  stage  of  the  red  clover  rust 

(abstract).  Phytopathology  7:  75.  1917. 

and  Hungerford,  C.  W.  Scolecotrichum  graminis  on  timothy. 


orchard  grass,  and  other  grasses  (abstract).  Phytopathology  7:  69. 
1917. 

Johnson,  J.  The  host  plants  of  Thielavia  basicola.  Jour.  Agr.  Res. 
7:  289-300.  1916. 

. Wilt  disease  of  tobacco  attributed  to  Fusarium  (abstract). 

Phytopathology  8:  10.  1918. 

and  Hartman,  R.  E.  Influence  of  soil  temperature  on  Thielavia 

root  rot  (abstract).  Phytopathology  8:  10.  1918. 

Keitt,  G.  W.  Peach  scab  and  its  control.  U.  S.  D.  A.  B.  P.  I.  Bui.  395. 
1917. 


. Second  progress  report  on  investigations  of  leaf  spot  of  cher- 
ries and  plums  in  Wisconsin  (abstract).  Phytopathology  7:  75.  1917. 

. Third  progress  report  on  investigations  of  leaf  spot  of  cher- 
ries and  plums  in  Wisconsin  (abstract).  Phytopathology  8:  72.  1918. 

. Inoculation  experiments  with  species  of  Coccomyces  from 

stone  fruits.  Jour.  Agr.  Res.  13:  539-569.  1918. 

Lippincott.  W.  A.  The  case  of  the  Blue  Andalusian.  Amer.  Nat.  52:  95- 
115.  No.  614.  1918. 

Loughlin,  Rosemary.  Some  recent  investigations  in  nutrition  at  the 
University  of  Wisconsin.  Jour.  Home  Econ.  9:  546-549.  1917. 

McCollum,  E.  V.  and  Pitz,  W.  Effects  of  feeding  the  proteins  of  the 
wheat  kernel  at  different  planes  of  intake.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  28:  211. 
1916. 


, Simmonds,  N.,  and  Pitz,  W.  The  dietary  deficiencies  of  the 

white  bean.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  19:  521.  1917. 

, , and . The  supplementary  dietary  relation  be- 
tween leaf  and  seed  as  contrasted  with  seed  and  seed.  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.  19:  13.  1917. 

, , and  . The  nature  of  the  dietary  deficiencies 

of  the  oat  kernel.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  29:  483.  1917. 

, Simmonds,  N.,  and  Steenbock,  H.  The  method  for  the  separa- 
tion of  the  dietary  essential,  fat  soluble  A from  butter  fat.  Proc. 
Amer.  Soc.  Biol.  Chemists  4:  26.  1916. 

Nelson,  V.  E.  and  Beck,  A.  J.  By-products  in  the  fermentation  of  cab- 
bage. Jour.  Amer.  Chem.  Soc.  40:  6.  1918. 

Peterson,  W.  H.  The  metabolism  of  the  mustard  oils.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
34:  3.  1918. 

Pitz,  W.  Studies  of  experimental  scurvy.  II.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  33:  3. 
1918. 

Roxas,  M.  L.  The  relation  between  amino  acids  and  carbohydrates  as 
a probable  cause  of  human  fermentation.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  27:71. 
1916. 

Sammis.  J.  L.  Testing  cheese  for  moisture.  Rpt.  Cheesemakers  Assoc. 
1918:  165-168. 

Sauve,  E.  C.  The  selection  of  a tractor.  Better  Farming  Jan.  1918. 
Steenbock,  H.  Anti-neuritic  substances  from  egg  yolk.  Proc.  Amer. 
Biol.  Chemists.  4:  26.  1916. 

The  isolation  of  stachydrin  from  alfalfa  hay.  Proc.  Amer. 

Assoc.  Biol.  Chemists  4:  27.  1916. 

Sure.  B.  and  Hart,  E.  B.  The  effect  of  temperature  on  the  reaction  of 
lysine  with  nitrous  acid.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  31:  3.  1917. 

and  Tottingham,  W.  E.  The  relation  of  amide  nitrogen  to  the 

nitrogen  metabolism  of  the  pea  plant.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  26:  535. 

1916. 

Tottingham,  W.  E.  and  Becker.  Antagonism  between  manganese  and 
iron  in  the  growth  of  wheat.  The  Plant  World  19:  359.  1916. 

Truog,  E.  Active  and  latent  soil  acidity  vs.  immediate  and  continued 
lime  requirement.  Jour.  Ind.  and  Eng.  Chem.  8:  756.  1916. 

. The  avidity  of  soil  acids.  Jour.  Ind.  and  Eng.  Chem.  9:  1072. 

1917.  v . fl 
. Soil  acidity:  its  relation  to  the  growth  of  plants.  Soil  Sci. 

5:169.  1918. 

and  Sykora.  J.  Soil  constituents  which  inhibit  the  action  of 

plant  toxins.  Soil  Sci.  3:  1917. 


Service  to  Wisconsin 


69 


Truesdell,  H.  W.  The  effect  of  phosphorus  in  alfalfa  and  alfalfa  bac- 
teria. (Prepared  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  E.  B.  Fred.)  Soil  Sci. 
3:  77-98.  1917. 

Vaughan,  R.  E.  Truck  crop  diseases  and  how  to  control  them.  Trans. 

III.  Hort.  Soc.  N.  S.  50:  329-333.  1916. 

. Cabbage  diseases  and  their  control.  The  Canner  44:  112—113. 

1917. 

and  Brann,  J.  W.  Potato  seed  treatment  (abstract).  Phyto- 
pathology 8:  70.  1918. 

Walker,  J.  C.  Studies  upon  the  anthracnose  of  the  onion  (abstract). 
Phytopathology  7:  59.  1917. 

— -.  Control  of  the  neck  rot  and  anthracnose  of  onion  sets  (ab- 
stract). Phytopathology  8:  70.  1918. 

< . Notes  on  the  resistance  of  onions  to  anthracnose  (abstract). 

Phytopathology  8:  70-71.  1918. 

Wilson,  H.  F.  A new  species  of  macrosiphum.  Ent.  News  29:  230-231. 

1918. 

and  Gentner,  L.  G.  The  imported  cabbage  worm  in  Wisconsin. 

Jour.  Econ.  Ent.  11:  79-81.  1918. 

Zeasman,  O.  R.  Tiling  deep  peat.  3rd  Conv.  Wis.  State  Drainage  Assoc. 

1917. 


70 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  302 


THE  WISCONSIN  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  IN  ACCOUNT  WITH 
THE  UNITED  STATES  APPROPRIATION 


1916-17 


Dr. 


O. 


To  receipt  from  treasurer  of  the  United  States  as  per  ap- 
propriations for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1917,  under  the 
acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2,  1887,  and  March  16, 

1906  

By  salaries  • 

By  labor  

By  publications  

By  postage  and  stationery 

By  freight  and  express 

By  heat,  light,  water  and  power 

By  chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies 

By  seeds,  plants,  and  sundry  supplies 

By  fertilizers  

By  feeding  stuffs  

By  library  

By  tools,  machinery,  and  appliances 

By  furniture  and  fixtures 

By  scientific  apparatus  and  specimens 

By  live  stock  

By  traveling  expenses  

By  contingent  expenses  

By  buildings  and  land 


$30,000.00 


$19,261.68 

2,614.00 

589.86 

52.28 

43.34 

9.57 

848.53 

1,151.41 

481.35 

2,881.76 


347.71 

285.53 

391.36 

225.90 

766.62 

30.00 

19.10. 


Total 


$30,000.00 


$30,000.00 


THE  WISCONSIN  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  IN  ACCOUNT  WITH 
THE  UNITED  STATES  APPROPRIATION 


1917-18 

Dr. 

Or. 

To  receipts  from  treasurer  of  the  United  States  as  per  ap- 
propriations for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1918,  under  the 
acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2,  1887,  and  March  16, 
1906  

$30,000.00 

- 

By  salaries  

$19,298.52 

2,765.44 

21.05 

80.38 

37.61 

36.40 

1,163.54 

1.178.63 

193.98 

2,929.33 

By  labor  

By  publications  

By  postage  and  stationery 

By  freight  and  express 

By  heat,  light,  water,  and  power 

By  chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies  

By  seeds,  plants,  and  sundry  supplies 

By  fertilizers  

By  feeding  stuffs  

By  library  

By  tools,  machinery  and  appliances 

230.84 

95.79 

1,163.30 

3.50 

801.69 

By  furniture  and  fixtures 

By  scientific  apparatus  and  specimens 

By  live  stnek  

By  traveling  expenses  . 

By  contingent  expenses  

By  buildings  and  land 

Total 

$30,000.00 

$30,000.00 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 

W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 

S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 

A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science ; In  charge 

of  Stallion  Enrollment 

F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

G.  H.  Benkendorf,  Dairy  Husbandry 

T.  L.  Bewick,  Agr.  Extension 

3.  Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
P.  W.  Boutwell,  Agricultural  Chemistry 
D.  S.  Bullock,  Animal  Husbandry 
J . Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 
3.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

3ernice  Dodge,  Home  Economics 
3.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Hus 
bandry 

C.  B.  Fred,  Agricultural  Bacteriology 

V.  D.  Frost,  Agricultural  Bacteriology 
. G.  Fuller.  Animal  Husbandry 

V.  J.  Geib,  Soils 

j.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

\B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 
; tvt  „ALPIN’  lR  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
;•  N.  Harmer,  Soils 

i.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 
I*  Y'  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
-L.  Hatch.  Agr.  Education 
r?'  Hibbard>  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
,L^nttHilL8TROM’  Home  Economics 

• W.  Hopkins,  Editor;  in  charge  of  Agr 

Journalism  K 

• S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

bandryHRET’  In  charge  of  Animal  Hus 

A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 
. G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
Johnson,  Horticulture 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 
Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
IAN  Krueger,  Home  Economics 

D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 

CoS™a„d1Sch0o,?erViSOr  °'  Kxten8lOD 
4^rCK^IN’  Agricultural  Economics 
?,ANNING-  Home  Economics 

no^sRLATT’  In  Charge  °f  Home  Bc°- 
G.  Milward,  Horticulture 

a JTn  charge  of  Horticulture 

A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 
B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 
L- Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 


i?'^’™ATCH’  Asst  Dir-  Agr.  Extension  Service 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Expt.  Station 

G.  F.  Potter.  Horticulture  ^ 

R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 

J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 
E.  C.  SauvE,  Agr.  Engineering 
L.  M.  Schindler,  Agr.  Engineering 
Celestine  Schmit,  Home  Economics 

H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone.  Agronomy ; in  charge  of  Seed  In- 
spection 

W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

H.  W.  Ullsperger.  Soils  (Sturgeon  Bay) 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
W.  W.  Weir,  Soils 
A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Ento 
mology 

J.  F.  Wojta,  State  Leader  of  Agricultural  Rep- 
resentatives 

A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 

W.  H.  Wright.  Agr.  Bacteriology 

O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

Freda  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

t Baker>  Agricultural  Journalism 

A Horticulture  and  Plant  Pathology 

A- J- Cramer,  Animal  Husbandry 

r m tPUFFEE:  Agricultural  Engineering 

n>'  Bargo>  Animal  Husbandry 

b.  L.  Fluke.  Economic  Entomology 

W E Fraser,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

E-OGross,  Agr.  Chemistry 

£ lHambleton,  Economic  Entomology 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 

J.  B.  Hayes,  Poultry  Husbandry 

C.  S.  Hean,  Agr.  Library 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

O N Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 

S. W.Mrndum,  Agricultural  Economics 
Maude  Miller.  Plant  Pathology 

Nell  B.  Nichols,  Agricultural  Journalism 

D. H.Reid,  Poultry  Husbandry  Sm 

X.  Ritger,  Executive  Secretary 

HAUA«5^T'  Sell’  Agricultural  Chemistry 
H H.  Sommer,  Agr.  Chemistry  y 

David  Smith.  Agr.  Chemistry 
Otto  Stader,  Veterinary  Science 


Bulletin  303 


June,  1919 

• ,;ty  of  iii'wois  um 


Common  Insecticides  AUG  2 0 1919 


Their  Practical  Value 


,H.  F.  WILSON 


WHICH 

KILLS 

QUICKEST? 

wmmmmm/imwmmmmmmmiimm 

wmmmmmmmmmmmmmrn 

WHICH 

BURNS 

WORST? 

m/m/m/w/mm 

mmmmm 

WHICH 

SETTLES  LEAST? 

w///m 

mm 

STICKS  BEST? 

ZD 

V/////M  Paris  Green  Zinc  Arsenite  BHi  Lead  Arsenate  (hydrogen) 

Calcium  Arsenate  I 1 Lead  Arsenate  (basic) 


USE  THE  BEST  INSECTICIDE 

The  best  spray,  is  the  one  which  burns  the  least,  sticks  best,  and  at 
the  same  time  kills  as  quickly  as  possible.  It  is  not  necessarily  the 
Kpray  that  kills  quickest  that  is  the  best  to  use. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


Insect  pests  which  cause  thousands  of  dollars  of  dam- 
age on  Wisconsin  farms  can  be  controlled  by  the  use  of 
the  right  spray  at  the  right  time.  Insect  damage  is  usu- 
ally a preventable  loss. 

There  are  a number  of  standard  insecticides  on  the 
market  as  well  as  a large  number  of  patented  prepara- 
tions. Which  is  best?  The  best  insecticide  is  the  one 
which  burns  the  foliage  of  the  plant  the  least,  sticks  best, 
and  at  the  same  time  kills  quickly.  One  spray  may  kill 
quickest,  but  burn  the  leaves  heavily.  Another  may  not 
burn  the  leaves,  yet  it  will  kill  nearly  as  rapidly. 

A careful  reading  of  this  bulletin  and  a short  study 
of  the  drawings  and  illustrations,  should  help  in  buying 
the  best  insecticide. 


Common  Insecticides 


Their  Practical  Value 


Spraying  is  a very  necessary  part  of  farm  practice  for  the 
control  of  insects  on  orchard,  farm  and  garden  crops.  A cheap 
and  efficient  spray,  easy  to  handle  and  easy  to  apply,  is  the  desire 
of  both  grower  and  manufacturer.  In  other  words,  what  is 
needed  is  a spray  material  that  will  kill  quickly  and  at  the  same 
time  involve  a minimum  of  labor  and  expense  for  its  application. 

Practical  Efficiency  Determines  Value  of  Insecticide 

The  value  of  an  insecticide  is  based  on  its  power  to  kill  or 
to  repel  insects.  To  be  considered  ideal  an  insecticide  should 
have  these  qualities: 

1.  It  must  kill  the  insect  before  the  latter  can  seriously  dam- 
age the  plant. 

2.  It  should  possess  no  properties  which  will  cause  injury 
to  the  plant. 

3.  Its  cost  must  be  sufficiently  low  to  permit  its  use  in  large 
quantities. 

4.  It  must  spread  and  stick  well  to  the  surface  to  which  it 
is  applied. 

5.  It  must  remain  in  suspension  sufficiently  well  to  permit 
of  a uniform  coating  of  poison  on  the  sprayed  parts. 

Common  Insecticides  Have  Same  Base 

Arsenic  oxide,  the  base  of  all  important  insecticides  now  used 
against  chewing  insects,  is  a substance  which  cannot  by  itself 


The  data  given  in  this  bulletin  are  based  on  a series  of  tests  made  at 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  and  at  the  Oregon  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station.  Special  attention  is  given  to  the  comparative  values 
of  the  insecticides  used  on  potatoes  as  there  is  a large  demand  among 
potato  growers  for  such  information,  and  the  crop  is  an  important  one 
in  Wisconsin. 

The  amounts  of  poison  necessary  to  give  efficient  control  in  the 
field  were  determined  by  comparative  demonstrations  on  a seven-acre 
field  at  Waukesha  in  1917  and  a twenty-acre  field  at  Hazelhurst,  in  1918 

The  spraying  tests  at  Waukesha  were  carried  on  by  the  writer  and 
those  at  Hazelhurst  by  L.  G.  Gentner.  C.  L.  Fluke  carried  on  the  lab- 
oratory and  field  tests  at  Madison.  In  the  laboratory  tests,  potted 
plants  were  used  to  some  extent  but  were  found  unsatisfactory  because 
of  trouble  in  transferring  the  larvae.  In  the  other  tests  fresh  leaves 
dipped  in  the  poison  solutions  were  fed  to  the  larvae  and  beetles  in 
open  glass  jars. 

The  tests  were  primarily  made  to  determine  the  comparative  values 
of  paris  green,  arsenite  of  zinc,  arsenate  of  lead  and  calcium  arsenate. 
Preliminary  tests  of  other  substances  used  in  spraying  for  potato  bugs 
were  made,  and  the  results  are  given  in  Tables  I and  II. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  303 


be  used  with  safety  on  plants  because  of  its  tendency  to  burn  the 
foliage.  In  combination  with  other  substances,  it  acts  as  a poison 
to  insects,  but  it  does  not  cause  harm  to  plants  unless  in  a liber- 
ated form  as  arsenic  oxide.  The  principal  substances  with  which 
it  is  combined  for  spraying  purposes  are  copper  (paris  green), 
zinc  (in  arsenite  of  zinc),  lead  (in  arsenate  of  lead),  and  calcium 
(in  calcium  arsenate).  These  four  poison  sprays  are  the  ones 
now  mostly  in  use.  A new  material,  arsenate  of  magnesium, 
has  recently  appeared  on  the  market  but  its  comparative  value 
has  not  yet  been  tested  at  this  station. 

Paris  Green  Injures  Foliage 

Paris  green  in  comparison  with  other  insecticides  has  a higher 
arsenical  content  than  the  other  materials  and  a greater  killing 
efficiency,  but  it  is  not  an  economical  spray  material  at  50  cents 
to  80  cents  a pound  and  it  has  a tendency  to  cause  foliage  injury. 
For  these  reasons,  it  seems  that  arsenate  of  lead  is  a much  more 
desirable  spray  to  use. 

When  paris  green  was  first  put  on  the  market,  it  contained  a 
comparatively  large  percentage  of  free  arsenic  oxide,  but  this 
has  been  considerably  reduced  through  present  methods  of  man- 
ufacture and  in  time  it  is  possible  that  a paris  green  may  be 
manufactured  that  will  not  injure  the  foliage  any  more  than  the 
other  arsenicals.  However,  at  present  the  percentage  of  free 
arsenic  oxide  is  so  great  as  to  cause  much  more  burning  than 
is  generally  realized  by  our  growers. 

Paris  green  does  not  have  the  sticking  qualities  of  the  other 
insecticides  nor  does  it  stand  in  suspension  as  well. 

Arsenate  of  Lead  Desirable  Insecticide 

Without  question  arsenate  of  lead  is  the  most  desirable  poison 
insecticide  on  the  market,  and  it  is  now  more  generally  used 
than  any  other.  The  reasons  are  that,  when  properly  prepared, 
it  is  safe  to  use  on  the  foliage  of  practically  all  plants,  it  stands 
well  in  suspension,  and  it  sticks  and  spreads  well  on  the  foliage. 
It  does  not  have  quite  the  killing  efficiency  of  paris  green  but 
the  difference  is  small  in  cases  where  pure  arsenate  of  lead  is 
used.* 

* It  is  necessary  to  point  out  that  in  these  experiments,  the  so- 
called  hydrogen  lead  arsenate  and  not  the  basic  lead  arsenate  is  indi- 
cated. 


Common  Insecticides 


5 


The  insecticide  manufacturers  and  chemists  know  arsenate  of 
lead  in  two  forms.  In  each  one,  the  arsenic  forms  a different 
combination  with  the  lead  so  that  in  the  one  known  as  hydrogen, 
acid,  or  diplumbic  arsenate  of  lead,  there  are  two  parts  of  lead 
and  one  part  of  arsenic  oxide  forming  a material  with  33  per 
cent*  poison  in  it.  The  second  form  of  arsenate  of  lead  known 
as  basic,  neutral,  or  triplumbic  arsenate  of  lead  forms  a combi- 
nation in  which  one  part  of  arsenic  oxide  is  combined  with  three 
parts  of  lead  and  in  which  the  poison  amounts  to  25  per  cent*  of 
the  total. 

The  basic  lead  arsenate  forms  a more  stable  combination  be- 
tween the  lead  and  arsenic  than  does  the  lead  hydrogen  arsenate. 
For  this  reason  it  does  not  break  down  as  rapidly  in  the  presence 
. of  water  or  air  and  is  the  most  desirable  spray  to  use  on  tender 
plants  in  certain  climates.  However,  this  slow  breaking  down 
makes  it  an  undesirable  spray  against  those  insects  which  are 
not  quickly  affected  by  poison. 

The  lead  hydrogen  arsenate  is  more  easily  broken  down  in 
contact  with  air,  water  or  other  chemicals  and  for  this  reason 
acts  more  quickly  and  has  a higher  killing  efficiency  than  the 
other  form.  But  for  this  very  reason  it  is  somewhat  more  dan- 
gerous to  use  on  the  foliage  of  tender  plants.  The  present  meth- 
ods of  manufacture,  however,  are  such  that  the  free  arsenic  in 
either  one  of  the  two  forms  is  so  limited  that  practically  no 
injury  results  from  the  use  of  either. 

The  difference  in  the  killing  efficiency  of  these  two  forms  prob- 
ably accounts  in  a large  measure  for  the  unsatisfactory  reports 
regarding  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  control  the  Colorado 
potato  beetle.  The  basic  arsenate  is  so  slow  in  its  action  that 
very  poor  results  are  obtained  when  used  against  this  insect, 
but  lead  hydrogen  arsenate  in  small  amounts  gives  immediate 
and  efficient  results.  It  has  also  been  noted  that,  while  insects 
that  have  fed  on  the  basic  lead  arsenate  do  not  die  immediately, 
most  of  them  become  sick  and  do  not  feed  after  receiving  a dose 
of  the  poison. 

Hardy  Foliage  Withstands  Zinc  Arsenite 

i 

Arsenite  of  zinc  has  come  on  the  market  in  recent  years  and 
next  to  paris  green  it  seems  to  have  a greater  killing  efficiency 

„ * Percentage  refers  to  arsenate  in  powdered  form. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  303 


than  any  of  the  other  insecticides  given.  However,  it  is  some- 
what variable  in  its  action  and  its  value  is  not  fully  determined. 
It  seems  that  it  cannot  be  used  with  safety  on  fruit  trees  because 
of  its  tendency  to  burn  or  crimp  the  leaves,  but  it  has  been 
found  to  be  a very  efficient  spray  for  potato  bugs,  without  caus- 
ing injury  to  potato  foliage.  It  should  be  slightly  cheaper  than 
arsenate  of  lead  and  would  therefore  make  a very  desirable' spray 
to  use  on  potatoes  and  other  plants  with  hardy  foliage. 

Calcium  Arsenate  Grows  More  Popular 

Calcium  arsenate  is  a material  which  has  received  some  atten- 
tion from  time  to  time  and  the  few  early  experiments  in  which 
it  was  used  seemed  to  show  that  it  was  not  a desirable  spray 
because  of  its  tendency  to  cause  spray  injury  to  tender  plants 
and  because  it  does  not  have  the  killing  efficiency  of  arsenate 
of  lead.  More  recent  investigations  have  shown,  however,  that 
there  are  several  forms  of  this  material  similar  to  those  of  arse- 
nate of  lead  and  that  one  of  these  can  be  used  on  the  foliage  of 
plants  with  comparative  safety  when  small  amounts  of  lime 
are  added.  According  to  market  quotations  it  is  cheaper  than 
any  of  the  other  insecticides  and  it  can  probably  be  manufac- 
tured and  sold  at  a still  lower  price  than  at  present.  In  this 
case,  it  should  prove  a very  desirable  substitute  for  the  other 
poisons  against  certain  insects.  It  remains  in  suspension  nearly 
as  well  as  hydrogen  lead  arsenate  and  it  sticks  equally  as  well 
under  unfavorable  weather  conditions.  It  is  now  being  manu- 
factured in  large  quantities  by  insecticide  dealers  so  that  grow- 
ers should  have  no  difficulty  in  securing  the  amounts  needed. 
This  spray  undoubtedly  has  a place  among  our  insecticides  and 
will  probably  be  widely  used  in  the  future. 

Sprays  Are  Used  in  Varying  Amounts 

Paris  green.  If  paris  green  is  to  be  used  for  the  potato  beetle, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  use  more  than  1%  to  2 pounds  to  50  gallons 
of  water  or,  stated  in  terms  of  acres,  l1/^  to  2 pounds  an  acre. 
In  cases  where  these  amounts  do  not  prove  efficient,  poor  results 
are  due  either  to  improper  application  or  to  a poor  grade  of 
material. 

Arsenate  of  lead.  This  material  comes  in  both  paste  and  pow- 
dered form.  The  paste  should  be  used  twice  as  strong  as  the 


Common  Insecticides 


7 


powder.  For  Colorado  potato  beetle  use  2 to  2 y2  pounds  of  the 
powder  to  every  50  gallons  of  water  or  of  Bordeaux  mixture,  if 
the  latter  is  used  in  disease  control.  This  amount  should  cover 
about  one  acre.  For  codling  moth  and  leaf  feeding  insects  on 
fruit  trees,  use  1 pound  of  the  powder  or  2 pounds  of  the  paste 
to  50  gallons  of  water.  For  cabbage  worms  and  other  chewing 
insects  on  cabbage  plants,  use  1 pound  to  50  gallons  of  water  and 
add  1 pound  of  laundry  soap  to  make  it  spread  and  stick  to 
the  foliage. 


ZINC  i WATER  SOLUBLE  ARSENIC  0.17  •/• 

[arsenite! 


ARSENIC  OXIDE  5B.6S 


ZI 


PARIS  ■ WATER  SOLUBLE  ARSENIC  I.S  TO  3.S  % 

GREEN 


SUSPENSIBILITY  - ADHESIVENESS 


L 


ARSENIC  OXIDE  33.1 


7 


LEAD  OXIDE  64.46 


LEAD  I WATER  SOLUBLE  ARSENIC  1.0  % 

arsenateI 


KILLING  EFFICIENCY 


DANGER  OF  BURNING  FOLIAGE  SLIGHT  EXCEPT  WHEN  COMBINED 


LIME  SULFUR 


HYDROGEN  1 

" 

1 ARSENIC  OXIDE  S7.8  •/.  B 

CALCIUM  1 

WATER  SOLUBLE  ARSENIC  1.0  V. 

ARSENATE 

KILLING  EFFICIENCY 

DANGER  OF  BURNING  FOLIAGE 

I ARSENIC  OXIDE  8S.S7  Y } • - 

LEAD 

WATER  SOLUBLE  ARSENIC  - TRACE 

arsenateI 

KILLING  EFFICIENCY 

DANG  OF  BURNING  FOLIAGE  NORMALLY  NONE 

basic 

SUSPENSIBILITY  - ADHESIVENESS 

FIG.  1. — KNOW  THE  INSECTICIDE  TO  USE 
Here  are  the  five  more  important  insecticides  shown  in  comparison 
A study  of  this  figure  will  show  which  is  the  insecticide  for  you  to  use. 

Arsenite  of  zinc.  Arsenite  of  zinc  is  sold  either  as  a paste  or 
powder,  on  as  a paste  combined  with  bordeaux  and  known  as 
zinc  bordeaux  paste.  For  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  use  2 
pounds  of  powder  or  4 pounds  of  paste  to  each  50  gallons  of 
water  or  bordeaux  mixture.  Directions  for  using  the  zinc  bor- 
deaux paste  are  given  on  the  package. 

Calcium,  arsenate.  Calcium  arsenate  may  be  used  in  the  same 
proportions  as  arsenate  of  lead  but  hydrated  lime  or  unslaked 
lime  is  added  in  equal  amounts  to  prevent  burning.  When  the 
lime  is  added,  it  should  be  slaked  in  a small  amount  of  water  and 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  303 


poured  into  the  spray  tank  before  application.  Calcium  car- 
bonate or  air-slaked  lime  should  not  be  used. 

Stirring  Is  Important  in  Spraying  Operation 

Figure  1 shows  the  average  killing  efficiency  of  paris  green, 
arsenite  of  zinc,  hydrogen  lead  arsenate,  calcium  arsenate  and 
basic  lead  arsenate.  The  comparative  values  as  shown  are  indi- 
cative rather  than  actual  as  new  methods  of  manufacture  have 


Lead 

frscfiql 


late /Ur* 
ftrse  fiats 

VffP  'US 


FIG.  2. — POISON  INSECTICIDES  NEED  CONSTANT  STIRRING 
TO  PREVENT  SETTLING 

This  photograph  shows  the  comparative  rate  of  settling  of  the  com- 
mon spraying  materials  immediately  after  shaking. 

a tendency  to  improve  the  killing  efficiency  and  to  decrease  the 
element  of  foliage-injury. 

The  rapidity  with  which  a poison  settles  in  the  spray  tank 
is  of  extreme  importance  because  one  of  the  difficulties  of  spray- 
ing is  met  with  in  getting  a uniform  spread  of  the  poison  over 
the  plants.  The  five  jars  shown  in  figures  2,  3 and  4 each  con- 
tain the  same  amount  of  water  by  volume  and  the  same  amount 
of  poison  by  weight.  The  poison  was  poured  into  all  five  jars 


Common  Insecticides 


9 


at  the  same  time  and  the  contents  were  immediately  shaken ; the 
second,  third  and  fourth  jars  at  the  same  time  and  the  first  and 
fifth  a few  seconds  later. 

The  first  photograph  was  taken  immediately  after  shaking  all 
of  the  insecticides. 

The  second  photograph  was  taken  three  minutes  later  and 
shows  not  only  the  necessity  of  agitation  in  the  spray  tank  but 
the  comparative  rapidity  with  which  each  one  of  these  materials 
settles.  Basic  lead  arsenate  settles  much  more  rapidly  than 
any  of  the  others  although  paris  green  is  a close  second.  Zinc 
arsenite,  calcium  arsenate  and  lead  hydrogen  arsenate  follow. 


FIG.  3. — POISON  INSECTICIDES  NEED  CONSTANT  STIRRING 
TO  PREVENT  SETTLING 

This  photograph  was  made  three  minutes  after  the  solutions  were 
shaken  thoroughly. 

The  third  photograph  was  taken  two  days  after  the  second 
and  shows  the  volume  and  corresponding  compactness  of  equal 
amounts  by  weight  of  each  material,  when  settling  is  complete. 
This  is  important  from  the  standpoint  of  agitation  because  it 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  303 


shows  that  the  lighter  and  more  fluffy  the  material,  the  better 
it  remains  in  suspension  and  the  easier  it  is  to  keep  it  agitated. 

Simple  Insecticides  Give  Best  Results 

Tests  were  made  to  determine  the  relative  killing  efficiency 
of  some  of  our  common  insecticides  and  also  to  determine  the 
active  ingredients  in  others  sold  under  trade  names  and  con- 
taining a number  of  different  chemicals.  In  all,  18  different 
materials  were  examined,  including  both  simple  arsenicals  and 
proprietary  insecticides  and  the  materials  used  in  their  manufac- 
ture. 

The  materials  were  found  to  be  of  three  classes : 


Z/nc 


Vafc/un 


fiead 


(paste) 


FIG.  4. — LEAD  HYDROGEN  ARSENATE  SETTLES  LEAST 
The  comparative  volume  and  compactness  of  equal  weights  of  the 
common  poison  insecticides  photographed  two  days  after  shaking. 

(1.)  Those  having  no  killing  efficiency,  (2)  those  having  a 
slight  degree  of  killing  efficiency,  (3)  those  having  a high  de- 
gree of  killing  efficiency. 

In  Class  1 are  Prince’s  mineral,  iron  oxide  and  silica. 

In  Class  2 are  basic  lead  sulphate,  lead  oxide,  zinc  oxide  and 


Common  Insecticides 


11 


the  compounds  of  zinc  oxide  + lead  oxide,  and  zinc  oxide  + 
lead  oxide  + iron  oxide. 

In  Class  3 are  paris  green,  lead  arsenate,  calcium  arsenate, 
zinc  arsenite,  Bug  Death,  Kling  Kill,  Tuber  Tonic  and  Insecto. 

Paris  green  and  a special  brand  of  lead  arsenate  gave  the  best 
results  with  practically  a 100  per  cent  killing  efficiency  within 
24  hours.  Ordinary  arsenate  of  lead  is  second  and  zinc  arsen- 
ite and  calcium  arsenate  are  a trifle  slower  than  the  others.  The 
materials  known  as  Bug  Death,  Kling  Kill,  Tuber  Tonic  and  In- 
secto are  proprietary  compounds  which  contain  as  the  active 
ingredient  either  lead  oxide,  zinc  oxide  or  some  arsenical  com- 
pound. They  are,  therefore,  merely  diluted  combinations  of 
poison  and  have  no  advantage  over  a good  grade  of  arsenate  of 
lead  or  calcium  arsenate. 

Summarizing,  paris  green  is  the  material  with  the  greatest 
killing  efficiency  but  it  is  little  better  than  a certain  brand  of 
arsenate  of  lead.  Ordinary  brands  of  arsenate  of  lead,  zinc 
arsenite,  and  calcium  arsenate  are  a trifle  slower  in  action  but 
are  sufficiently  efficient  for  all  practical  purposes  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  Colorado  potato  beetle. 

' Addition  of  Lime  Prevents  Foliage  Injury 

These  tests  were  made  primarily  to  determine  the  effect  of 
each  material  used  on  the  foliage  of  apple  or  potato  plants.  An 
effort  was  also  made  to  determine  whether  or  not  there  was  any 
difference  as  to  burning  when  the  different  chemicals  were 
combined  with  lime  or  bordeaux  mixture. 

On  potatoes,  paris  green  without  lime  was  the  only  spray 
which  caused  any  marked  damage.  This  is  normally  what  hap- 
pens in  the  field  and  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  growers  are 
being  advised  to  use  a substitute  for  paris  green. 

On  apple  foliage  it  has  been  found  that  both  calcium  arsen- 
ate and  paris  green  cause  injury  to  the  foliage  unless  they  are 
combined  with  equal  parts  of  lime,  lime  sulfur,  or  bordeaux 
mixture.  When  so  combined,  no  burning  has  been  detected. 


TABLE  I.—  Lahoratory  Insecticide  Tests 
To  Determine  Killing  Efficiency 


Tab  he  II. — Scorching  Test  on  Potato  Vines — 1918 


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Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the 
Barberry  in  Wisconsin 


A G.  JOHNSON  AND  JAMES  G.  DICKSON 


THE  COMMON  BARBERRY  SPREADS  STEM  RUST 


The  stem  rust  spread  from  the  infected  barberry  hedge  to  the 
grass  in  the  adjoining  field.  All  of  the  grass  plants  were  rusted 
near  the  hedge.  Therefore,  the  common  barberry  is  dangerous 
and  should  be  eradicated. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


Stem  rust  of  grains  is  a disease  that  has  been  known  for  centuries. 
Observations  of  farmers  in  many  countries  indicate  that  the  presence 
of  the  tall  or  common  barberry  increases  the  loss  from  rust.  Scien- 
tific study  has  shown  that  in  one  stage  the  stem  rust  passes  to  the  bar- 
berry  in  the  spring  and  from  that  back  to  the  grains  and  grasses. 

Pages  3 to  4. 

There  are  two  types  of  rust:  stem  rust  and  leaf  rust.  The  leaf  rusts 
do  not  attack  the  barberry.  Each  rust  has  two  stages,  the  “red 
rust”  or  summer  stage  and  the  “black  rust”  or  winter  stage.  Infec- 
tion on  the  barberry  comes  only  from  the  black  rust  stage  of  the  stem 
rust.  Pages  5 to  6. 

Each  kind  of  grain  has  a different  leaf  rust  caused  by  a different  but 
closely  related  rust  fungus.  Pages  6 to  7 

All  grains  are  attacked  by  the  same  species  of  stem  rust  fungus. 
However,  most  of  the  grains  have  a specialized  strain  of  the  fungus 
which  attacks  only  a limited  number  of  grains  and  grasses.  Stem 
rust  causes  enormous  losses.  The  fungus,  growing  on  the  grain  stems, 
causes  them  to  split  and  considerable  water  is  lost.  Shrunken  ker- 
nels result.  Pages  7 to  12. 

The  tall,  common  or  dangerous  barberry  is  universally  rusted  in 
Wisconsin.  Enormous  quantities  of  rust  spores  are  produced  on  the 
barberry  leaves.  No  stem  rust  infections  on  grains  or  grasses  have 
been  seen  before  the  time  when  such  infection  could  have  come  from 
rusted  barberries.  Numerous  early  stem  rust  infections  have  been 
noted  always  close  to  rusted  barberries.  Pages  12  to  13. 

Different  kinds  of  barberries  are  found.  The  common  barberry, 
either  the  green-leaved  or  purple-leaved  varieties,  harbors  the  stem 
rust.  The  rust  is  also  found  on  the  Mahonias,  which  are  shrubs  not 
widely  planted  in  Wisconsin.  The  dwarf  Japanese  barberry  does  not 
carry  the  stem  rust  and  is,  therefore,  harmless.  Pages  14  to  16. 


Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the 
Barberry  in  Wisconsin 

Commendable  progress  has  been  made  in  destroying  the  dan- 
gerous barberry  in  Wisconsin,  but  many  bushes  still  remain. 
Information  gained  through  the  extensive  rust  and  barberry 
survey,  of  1918  has  shown  that  the  barberry  was  much  more 
widely  distributed  in  Wisconsin  than  was  at  first  thought.  In 
some  cases  the  barberry  has  escaped  from  cultivation  and  is 
growing  wild.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  if  effective  con- 
trol of  stem  rust  of  grains  is  to  be  obtained  through  barberry 
eradication,  the  campaign  so  well  started  should  be  continued 
until  the  escaped,  as  well  as  the  cultivated,  bushes  no  longer 
exist. 

The  stem  rust  of  grains  is  a disease  caused  by  a fungus  germ, 
a parasite,  which  is  able  to  attack  not  only  the  grains,  but  also 
the  ornamental  shrub  known  as  the  tall  or  common  barberry 
(Berberis  vulgaris). 

This  stem  rust  of  grains  has  been  known  since  ancient  times 
as  one  of  tho  serious  grain  diseases.  It  was  the  farmer,  how- 
ever, who  first  realized  that  the  barberry  was  in  some  way  con- 
nected with  the  rust.  Farmers  in  England,  Denmark,  France, 
and  America  discovered  at  an  early  date  that  where  barberry 
bushes  were  near  their  grain  fields  the  grains  were  badly  rusted 
and  yields  were  poor.  They  even  went  so  far  as  to  pass  laws 
prohibiting  planting  common  barberry  bushes  near  grain  fields. 
Later  the  scientists  took  up  the  study  and  proved  definitely  that 
the  rust  on  the  grains  and  on  the  barberry  was  caused  by  the 
same  species  of  fungus  parasite.  Furthermore,  they  discovered 
that  the  spores  or  seed  bodies  of  this  fungus  parasite  as  they 
developed  on  the  barberry  in  the  spring,  spread  to  the  grains 
in  nearby  fields,  and  there  caused  the  rust.  Thus  they  showed 
definitely  that  the  farmers’  suspicions  were  well  founded,  and 
that  the  presence  of  the  barberry  was  an  important  factor  in 
spreading  the  rust  to  the  grains  in  the  spring. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  304 


FIG.  1.— THE  STEM  RUST  SPLITS  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  STEM  AND  LEAVES 

The  stem  rust  appears  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of  barley,  oats,  wheat,  rye  and 

some  grasses. 


Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the  Barberry  in  Wisconsin 


5 


There  Are  Two  Types  of  Rust  on  Grains 

The  various  rusts  of  grains  and  other  plants  are  caused  by 
minute  plants  called  fungi.  The  fungi  grow  within  the  grain 
plants  somewhat  similarly,  in  general,  to  the  way  the  grain 
plants  grow  in  the  soil.  Growing  in  this  way,  these  rust  fungi 
so  sap  the  vitality  or  poison  the  tissues  of  the  grains  as  to  cause 
the  diseases  popularly  known  as  the  rusts. 

In  addition  to  the  stem  rust,  which  may  occur  on  any  of  the 
cereals,  there  are  leaf  rusts,  which  also  occur  on  the  various 
grains.  These  leaf  rusts  are  often  confused  with  stem  rust. 
They  are,  however,  entirely  different,  and  are  caused  by  other 
species  of  rust  fungi.  None  of  these  leaf  rust  fungi  attack  the 
barberry. 

Each  of  these  various  cereal  rusts  has  two  so-called  stages 
on  the  grains,  namely,  the  “red  rust”  or  summer  stage  and 
the  “black  rust”  or  winter  stage.  The  “red  rust”  or  summer 
stage  occurs  on  the  younger  growing  grain,  while  the  “black 
rust”  or  winter  stage  develops  later  on  the  older  grain,  straw 
and  stubble. 

Only  certain  grains  and  grasses  are  attacked  by  the  “red  rust” 
stages  of  each  of  the  various  grain  rusts.  It  is  this  stage  of  the 
rust  that  during  the  summer  spreads  the  infection  in  the  fields 
from  the  rusted  grain  and  grass  plants  to  those  not  rusted. 

While  the  “red  rust”  stages  of  the  various  rusts  spread  the 
infection  among'  the  plants  upon  which  they  occur  and  also 
to  certain  other  grains  and  grasses,  these  stages  cannot  infect 
the  barberry  or  other  similar  plants.  Only  the  “black  rust” 
stages  can  do  this.  And  in  turn,  the  “black  rust”  stages  can- 
not directly  infect  grains  or  grasses.  These  stages  infect  only 
other  plants,  widely  different  from  those  upon  which  they  are 
produced,  and  from  the  infections  on  such  plants  the  rusts  may 
spread  back  to  the  grains  and  grasses  again.  For  example,  the 
“black  rust”  stage  of  the  stem  rust  of  grains  (Puccinia 
graminis)  lies  dormant  through  the  winter  and  infects  the  com- 
mon barberry  in  the  spring.  From  this  barberry  infection  the 
rust  spreads  back  to  the  grains  and  grasses.  Similarly  the 
“black  rust”  stage  of  the  leaf  rust  of  oats  infects  the  common 
buckthorn  (Rhamnus  cathartica)  and  closely  related  plants. 
The  “black  rust”  stage  of  the  leaf  rust  of  rye  is  able  to  infect 


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still  another  plant.  The  plants  that  the  “black  rust’’  stages 
of  the  leaf  rusts  of  wheat  and  barley  may  infect  are  not  known. 

Leaf  Rusts  of  Grains  Caused  by  Different  Fungi 

The  leaf  rusts  of  grains  are  each  caused  by  different  but 
closely  related  rust  fungi.  Each  of  these  fungi  is  able  to  attack 


FIG.  2.— THE  STEM  RUST  AND  LEAF  RUST  ARE  DIFFERENT 

The  stem  rust  on  the  leaves  of  winter  rye  (left)  causes  long-  lesions  and  splits  the 
surface  of  the  leaves.  The  leaf  rust  (right)  causes  small  round  lesions  and  does  not 
split  the  leaf  surface. 

and  cause  rust  on  only  the  one  grain.  The  leaf  rust  of  rye  at- 
tacks rye  and  no  other  grain,  that  of  wheat  attacks  wheat  and 
no  other  grain,  and  so  on.  The  leaf  rusts  differ  in  a number 
of  ways  from  stem  rust.  The  leaf  rusts,  as  their  name  suggests, 
occur  chiefly  on  the  leaf  blades  and  leaf  sheaths.  The  “red 


Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the  Barberry  in  Wisconsin  7 

rust”  stages  consist  of  small,  almost  circular  pustules  filled 
with  an  orange  yellow  powdery  substance,  the  spores  of  the 
fungi.  The  leaf  rusts  do  not  split  the  surfaces  of  the  leaves  and 
sheaths  so  conspicuously  as  does  the  stem  rust.  The  “ black 
rust”  or  winter  stages  occur  on  the  leaf  blades  and  sheaths  and 
are  evident  as  rather . small,  smooth,  grayish-black  spots.  These 
do  not  break  through  the  surface  as  does  the  correspond- 
ing stage  of  the  stem  rust,  figure  1.  The  differences  between 
the  “red  rust”  stages  of  the  leaf  rust  and  stem  rust  on  rye 
are  shown  in  figure  2. 

Barberry  Spreads  the  Stem  Rust  of  Grains 

The  stem  rust  of  all  the  grains  is  caused  by  the  same  species 
of  fungus  (Puccinia  graminis).  Most  of  the  grains,  however, 
have  a so-called  specialized  strain  of  the  fungus  which  is  able 
to  attack  only  a limited  number  of  grains  and  grasses.  For 
example,  the  stem  rust  strain  on  rye,  barley,  quack  grass,  and 
certain  other  grasses  cannot  attack  wheat  or  oats.  The  stem 
rust  strain  on  wheat  attacks  wheat,  barley,  squirrel-tail  grass, 
and  certain  other  grasses,  but  cannot  attack  rye  or  oats.  Sim- 
ilarly, the  stem  rust  strain  on  oats  attacks  oats  and  certain 
grasses,  but  cannot  attack  rye,  wheat,  or  barley.  Barley  is  the 
only  grain,  then,  that  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  more  than 
one  of  these  stem  rust  strains,  for  both  the  rye  and  wheat  strains 
may  attack  barley.  On  the  other  hand,  barley  is  the  only  grain 
which  does  not  have  a stem  rust  strain  specialized  chiefly  to 
itself. 

All  of  these  various  specialized  strains  of  stem  rust  can  in- 
fect the  common  barberry  in  the  spring  by  means  of  their 
“black  rust”  stages.  And  then  in  turn,  each  strain  can  spread 
from  the  barberry  back  to  the  same  grain  or  grains  and  grasses 
to  which  it  is  specialized.  That  is,  its  specialization  remains 
the  same,  even  after  infecting  the  barberry. 

The  “red  rust”  stage  of  stem  rust  occurs  chiefly  on  the  stems 
(fig.  1),  but  may  also  occur  on  the  leaves  of  the  growing  plants 
(fig.  2).  It  is  evident  as  rather  conspicuous,  distinctly  elongate 
or  oblong,  reddish-brown  pustules.  These  pustules  are  quite 


The  leaf  rust  of  rye  is  caused  by  the  fungus  known  by  its  Latin  name  as 
Puccinia  dispersa ; the  leaf  rust  of  wheat  by  Puccinia  triticina;  the  leaf  rust 
of  oats  by  Puccinia  coronata;  and  the  leaf  rust  of  barley  by  Puccinia  simplex. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  304 


TABLE  II— DISTINGUISHING  OHARACTERISHO 

- 


Kind  of 
barberry 


Habit  of 
growth 


Color  of 
bark 


Shape  of 
spines 


HARMFUL 
Common 
or  tall 
European 
Barberry 


Tall 
upright 
open 
habit  of 
growth 


Gray 


Three-parted,  large 


HARMLESS 

Japanese 

Barberry 


Low,  rather 
spreading 
dense 
habit  of 
growth 


Reddish  brown 


Simple,  small 


Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the  Barberry  in  Wisconsin 


9 


harmful  and  harmless  barberries 


Description 
of  berries 


Oblong,  shriveled, 
red  to  purple, 
borne  in  long  clusters 


Description 
of  leaves 


Rather  large, 
sharply  toothed 
margins 


Oval,  plump,  scarlet,  Rather  small, 

borne  singly  or  in  pairs  smooth  margins 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  304 


large  and,  as  they  break  through  the  surface  of  the  stem  or 
leaf,  cause  marked  splitting  of  the  surface  layers.  This  split- 
ting and  shredding  of  the  surface  is  likewise  characteristic  of 
the  “black  rust”  stage,  which  develops  later  in  the  season  in 
the  same  or  adjoining  regions  formerly  occupied  by  the  “red 
rust”  stage. 


FIG.  3.— THE  STEM  RUST  CAUSES  SMALL  HEADS  AND  BADLY  SHRIVELED 

GRAIN 

The  wheat  heads  shown  at  A were  collected  near  a barberry  bush  where  the  rust  was 
very  heavy.  The  heads  are  small,  the  straw  is  poor,  and  the  grain  is  light  and  shriv- 
eled. The  head  shown  at  B was  from  a portion  of  the  field  free  from  rust.  The  heads 
are  large,  the  straw  is  clean,  and  the  grain  plump  and  heavy. 

Heavy  Damage  Done  by  Various  Rusts 

The  annual  losses  from  stem  rust  attacks  on  grains  are  enor- 
mous. Briefly,  the  disease  affects  the  crop  as  follows:  The 

stem  rust  actually  splits  the  stems  of  the  growing  grain  plants, 
which  breaks  the  outer  layers  and  allows  a large  amount  of 
water  to  escape.  Experiments  have  shown  that  wheat  plants 
badly  rusted  with  stem  rust  require  about  one-third  more  water 
than  similar  non-rusted  plants.  Besides  this  loss  of  water,  the 
fungus  causing  the  rust  feeds  on  the  stem  of  the  growing  plant 
just  below  the  head  and  robs  the  plant  of  the  food  which  should 


Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the  Barberry  in  Wisconsin  11 


normally  go  to  the  head  to  form  plump  heavy  kernels.  Thus, 
as  is  well  known,  the  grain  from  badly  rusted  plants  becomes 
greatly  shrunken  (fig.  3).  The  leaf  rusts,  on  the  other  hand, 


FIG.  4.— THE  STEM  RUST  FORMS!  CLUSTER  CUPS  ON  THE  LEAVES  OF  THE 
COMMON  BARBERRY 

The  cluster  cups  of  the  spring  stage  of  stem  rust  appear  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
common  barberry  leaves  and  spread  spores  to  the  surrounding  grains  and  grasses. 
The  large  cluster  cup  on  the  right  is  magnified  in  fig.  6. 


do  not  cause  nearly  so  severe  injuries.  They  split  the  leaves 
and  sheaths  but  very  little  or  not  at  all  and,  therefore,  do  not 
cause  a large  loss  of  water.  They  do  not  occur  on  the  stem  to 
any  extent  and,  therefore,  do  not  rob  the  plant  of  the  food 


12 


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which  is  in  the  stem  ready  to  be  sent  to  the  filling  head.  The 
slight  loss  caused  by  the  leaf  rusts  is  due  to  a small  loss  of 
water  by  the  plant  and  small  losses  of  food.  Experiments  and 
observations  have  shown  that  the  losses  caused  by  the  leaf  rusts 
are,  in  general,  far  less  than  those  caused  by  the  stem  rust. 

Relation  of  Barberry  to  Stem  Rust  in  Wisconsin 

The  common  barberry  is  universally  rusted  in  Wisconsin. 
The  first  appearance  of  the  rust  on  the  barberry  is  generally 

about  the  first  of  May  and 
spore  production  continues 
until  the  latter  part  of  June. 
A few  barberry  leaves  carry- 
ing a normal  rust  infection 

are  shown  in  figure  4.  The 

single  cluster  cup,  or  so- 

called  aecium,  (fig.  5)  con- 

tains enough  rust  spores  to 
sow  rust  over  a 40-acre  grain 
field. 

Extensive  field  observa- 
tions and  field  tests  have  been 
made  in  Wisconsin  during 
the  last  two  years  to  learn  if 
the  barberry  is  an  important 
factor  in  starting  stem  rust 
infections  in  the  spring.  Dur- 
ing the  fall,  regions  were 

located  where  the  rust  was 

abundant.  Definitely  mark- 
ed locations  on  grasses  were  carefully  observed  throughout  the 
winter  and  following  spring.  Careful  search  at  these  stations 
gave  no  evidence  of  new  stem  rust  infections  previous  to  the 
time  when  such  infection  could  have  come  from  rusted  bar- 
berries. 

Further  careful  observations  on  the  winter  stage  of  the  rust 
on  grasses  and  grains  showed  that  about  18  days  after  the  win- 
ter spores  began  to  germinate  in  the  field,  rust  infections  ap- 

peared on  the  barberry.  After  the  barberries  showed  the  rust, 


FIG.  5.— CLUSTER  CUP  OP  THE  STEM 
RUST  ON  BARBERRY  HIGHLY 
MAGNIFIED 

Each  little  cup  contains  spores  enough  to 
sow  stem  rust  on  an  acre  of  grain.  There 
are  spores  enough  on  the  whole  cluster  cup 
to  spread  rust  over  a 40-acre  field. 


Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the  Barberry  in  Wisconsin  13 


the  rust  infections  were  first  noted  uniformly  on  the  grains  and 
grasses  near  infected  barberries. 

Numerous  cases  were  observed  to  note  the  spread  of  the  rust 
from  infected  barberries  to  grains  and  grasses.  In  one  of  these 
cases,  there  was  a hedge  of  barberries  heavily  infected  with  rust 
near  a quack  grass  meadow.  In  this  meadow  early  in  the  sea- 
son the  rust  was  very  abundant  on  the  quack  grass  near  the 
barberries  and  became  less  and  less  abundant  away  from  the 
barberries.  Careful  counts  were  made  of  the  actual  propor- 
tion of  rusted  and  non-rusted  grass  stems  at  various  locations 
and  distances  from  the  infected  barberries.  The  results  are 
given  in  Table  I and  in  the  figure  on  the  cover. 

table  i.— spread  of  stem  rust  to  quack  grass  from  rusted  barberry 

HEDGE 


Station 

number 

Direction 
from  barberry 

Distance 
from  barberry 

Per  cent  of  grass 
stems  infected 

1 

NE 

15  feet 

100 

2 

NE 

40  “ 

95 

NE' 

65  “ 

80 

NE 

90  « 

30 

5. . 

NE 

125  “ 

41 

6 

NE 

150  “ 

15 

7 

NE 

175  “ 

10 

NE 

200  “ 

10 

9 

NE 

225  “ 

5 

NE 

250  “ 

2 

11 

NE 

275  “ 

2 

12.. 

NE 

300  “ 

1 

13 

NE 

325  “ 

1 

14 

NE 

350  “ 

0.5 

15 

NE 

375  “ 

1 

16 

NE 

400  “ 

0.5 

17 

NE 

425  “ 

0.5 

It  was  strikingly  evident,  as  shown  in  Table  I and  the  figure 
on  the  cover,  that  the  rust  spreads  from  the  barberry. 

Similar  observations  were  also  made  in  grain  fields  near  bar- 
berries with  similar  results  in  all  cases. 

Observations  and  results  have  been  made  repeatedly  in  other 
states  and  in  other  countries,  showing  that  there  is  undoubtedly 
a direct  relation  between  the  rust  infections  on  the  barberry  in 
the  spring  and  the  spread  of  the  rust  to  grains  and  grasses.  The 
observations  in  this  state  show  that  this  is  particularly  true  in 
Wisconsin.  Hence,  the  barberry  should  be  eradicated. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  304 


Three  Different  Kinds  of  Barberry  Common  in  Wisconsin 

There  are  a large  number  of  different  barberries  described 
and  grown,  but  only  three  species  have  been  commonly  planted 
in  Wisconsin.  The  common  or  tall  European  barberry  (Ber- 


FIG.  6— COMMON  AND  JAPANESE  BARBERRY  ARE  DIFFERENT 

The  common  or  tall  barberry  (fig.  A)  has  coarse,  grey  stems,  usually  three-parted 
spines,  and  the  berries  in  long  drooping  bunches  like  currants.  The  Japanese  barberry 
(fig.  B)  has  brown  slender  stems,  usually  single  spines,  and  plump  berries  singly 
or  in  small  and  short  clusters  of  two,  like  gooseberries. 


beris  vulgaris)  with  green  leaves,  and  the  variety  with  purple 
leaves  (purpurea)  have  been  planted  quite  commonly  not  only 
in  cities  and  villages,  but  also  on  many  of  the  Wisconsin  farms. 
This  species  has  escaped  from  cultivation  in  at  least  nine  dif- 
ferent places  in  the  state.  The  common  barberry  helps  to 


Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the  Barberry  in  Wisconsin  15 


spread  stem  rust  and,  therefore,  is  dangerous.  The  Mahonias, 
chiefly  Mahonia  aquifolium,  have  been  planted  in  a few  lo- 
cations. Certain  of  the  Mahonias  harbor  the  stem  rust  and 
are,  therefore,  harmful.  Finally,  the  Japanese  barberry 
(Berberis  Thunbergii)  has  been  used  in  nearly  all  of  the  parks 

and  many  of  the  residence 
grounds  in  the  state.  The  Jap- 
anese barberry  does  not  carry 
the  stem  rust  and,  therefore,  is 
harmless. 


fig.  7. 

THE  DANGEROUS  BARBERRY  THE  HARMLESS  BARBERRY 

The  tall  barberry  (left)  helps  to  spread  stem  rust,  is  dangerous  and  should  be 
destroyed.  The  low  Japanese  barberry  (right)  is  harmless  and  may  be  grown. 

The  Harmful  Common  or  European  Barberry 

The  common  or  tall  European  barberry  varies  greatly,  yet  it  is 
readily  recognized.  It  is  a rather  tall,  upright  or  slightly  arch- 
ing, spiny  shrub,  with  gray  branches  which  have  four  grooves 
running  the  entire  length  of  each  branch  (fig.  7.)  The  spines 
are  usually  three-parted  at  each  leaf  bud  (fig.  6 A).  Occa- 
sionally, however,  simple  spines  occur.  Several  other  species 
of  plants  have  three-parted  spines,  as,  for  example,  the  wild 
gooseberry,  but  these  plants,  instead  of  being  smooth-stemmed 
as  the  barberry  is,  have  a mass  of  small  hairs  covering  the 
surface  of  the  stem.  The  oblong  red  berries  hang  in  long 
clusters  and  are  shriveled  and  wrinkled  in  the  winter  and 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  304 


spring  (fig.  6 A and  figure  in  Table  II).  The  leaves  have 
toothed  margins.  (See  figure  in  Table  II).  The  purple-leaved, 
common,  or  tall,  European  barberry  is  identical  with  the  green- 
leaved form  except  in  the  color  of  the  leaves. 

The  Mahonia 

The  Mahonias  are  not  very  common  in  Wisconsin,  as  they 
winter-kill  badly.  They  are  low  shrubs  with  spineless  branches 
and  compound  coarsely  and  sharply  toothed  leaves.  The  round 
blue  berries  hang  in  long  clusters. 

The  Harmless  Japanese  Barberry 
The  Japanese  barberry  is  a rather  low,  somewhat  spreading, 
dense-growing,  spiny  shrub  (fig.  7)  with  reddish  brown 
branches.  The  spines  are  rather  small  and  usually  simple,  but 
with  occasional  small  side  spines  (fig.  6).  The  plump,  oval, 
scarlet  berries  hang  singly  or  in  pairs  (fig.  6 B and  figure  in 
Table  II).  The  leaves  are  rather  small  with  entire  margins. 
(See  figure  in  Table  II.) 


Bulletin  305 


September,  1919 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 

E.  J.  DELWICHE  and  B.  D.  LEITH 


THE  WISCONSIN  WHEAT  HARVEST 


Wheat  is  a profitable  crop  to  grow  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  High- 
yielding  pedigreed  seed  is  available  for  sowing,  and  the  soil  and  climate 
combine  to  make  heavy  crops  possible. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


Certain  parts  of  Wisconsin  are  well  adapted  to  the  profitable  pro- 
duction of  wheat.  The  crop  is  not  unusually  hard  on  the  soil  where 
crop  rotations  are  practiced.  Pages  3 to  4. 

Some  wheats  are  better  suited  to  Wisconsin  conditions  than  others. 

Descriptions  are  given  of  the  Turkey  Red,  Marquis,  Fife,  Bearded 
Spring,  Prelude,  Blue  Stem,  and  Durum  or  Macaroni  varieties.  Some 
of  these  are  more  resistant  to  disease,  others  yield  more  heavily,  and 
still  others  have  superior  baking  qualities.  Pages  4 to  5. 

Pedigree  varieties  of  high  producing  wheats  are  now  available  for 

the  Wisconsin  wheat  grower.  It  pays  to  grow  the  best.  Pages  6 to  7. 

Whiter  wheat  is  best  for  Wisconsin.  It  has  a number  of  advantages 
over  spring  wheat  when  climate,  soil,  and  other  conditions  are  con- 
sidered. Pages  7 to  8. 

Early  plowing  makes  the  best  seed  bed  for  winter  wheat.  Sow  late 
in  August  or  early  in  September,  depending  on  the  season  and  the 
part  of  the  state.  Drilled  wheat  yields  best.  The  rate  of  seeding 
varies  with  the  season  but  from  six  to  eight  pecks  is  usually  sown. 

Pages  8 to  11. 

Stacking  the  grain  improves  the  quality.  It  also  prevents  any 
serious  damage  from  weathering.  Pages  11  to  12. 

Winterkilling  is  resisted  by  some  varieties  better  than  others.  Early 
seeding  and  a good  seed  bed  help  to  prevent  losses.  Pages  12  to  14. 

Crop  rotations  are  needed  if  the  hugest  possible  yields  are  to  be  se- 
cured and  the  soil  kept  at  its  best.  The  rotation  varies  in  different 
local  ties,  depending  on  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions. 

Pages  14  to  16. 

Experiments  have  determined  the  best  varieties  for  Wisconsin. 

Hundreds  of  strains  have  been  tested,  the  poorest  discarded,  and  the 
promising  ones  developed  into  the  high  yielding  pedigree  strains  now 
recommended.  Page  16. 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 

Wisconsin  has  “come  back”  as  a wheat-producing  state.  In 
1917  and  1918,  Wisconsin  doubled  her  wheat  acreage  and  found 
that  profitable  returns  were  possible  on  many  soil  types. 

On  the  right  kind  of  soil,  in  the  proper  rotation,  and  with 
high-yielding,  pedigreed  seed,  wheat  is  now  a prominent  and 
paying  crop  in  the  state. 

Regions  Where  Wheat  Grows  Best 

When  grown  in  a rotation  wheat  does  well  on  heavy  loams 
and  clays,  but  it  does  not  do  so  well  on  light  soils.  The  red 
ciay  districts  south  of  Lake  Superior  in  Douglas,  Bayfield,  Ash- 
land, and  Iron  counties  are  adapted  both  to  winter  and  spring 
wheats. 

Around  Lake  Winnebago  and  along  the  Lake  Michigan 
shore,  besides  the  territory  near  the  Fox  river,  are  found  other 
sections  where  wheat  thrives.  Parts  of  Barron,  Polk,  and  St. 
Croix  counties  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  have  soils 
adapted  to  wheat.  All  of  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  in- 
cluding the  first  two  tiers  of  counties,  is  adapted  to  wheat  rais- 
ing. 

Winter  wheat  is  grown  on  the  well-drained  loams  of  southern 
Wisconsin,  while  on  the  red  clay  soils  wheat  does  better  than 
barley.  This  condition  is  due,  perhaps,  to  the  well-developed 
root  system  of  the  wheat  plant  which  enables  it  to  grow  under 
more  adverse  conditions  than  barley. 

Wheat  Is  Not  Unusually  Hard  on  the  Soil 

Wheat  is  not  harder  on  the  soil  than  oats  or  barley  as  has 
often  been  claimed.  Judging  by  the  amounts  of  plant  food  re- 
moved for  equal  amounts  of  dry  matter  in  the  grain,  this  can- 
not be  the  case.  In  Table  I are  shown  the  amounts  of  plant  food 
removed  by  1,000  pounds  each  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  rye. 

When  the  average  prices  for  the  10  years  (1904-1914)  are 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  305 


taken  as  a standard,  wheat  removes  about  one-sixth  less  fer- 
tility per  dollar’s  worth  of  grain  than  oats  does,  and  an  eighth 
less  than  barley  or  rye.  These  facts  are  shown  in  Table  I. 


Table  1.— Comparison  of  Market  Values  of  Different  Grains  with 

THE  VALUE  OF  THEIR  FERTILIZER  CONSTITUENGS 


Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Wheat 

Fertili  zer  const  it-  f N itrogen 

19.2  lbs. 

18.2  lbs. 

18.1  lbs. 

19  lbs. 

uents  per  1, 000  1 

lbs i Phosphoric  acid 

7.9  “ 

7.8  “ 

3.6  “ 

8.7  *■ 

1 Pot  ash 

4.8  “ 

4.8  “ 

5.8  “ 

5.5 

Value  of  fertilizer  per  1,000  lbs 

3.515 

3.36 

3.415 

3.56 

Average  price  per  bu.  1905-1914  

$0.62 

$0.88 

$0.69 

$0.79 

Value  of  1,000  lbs.  of  grain 

$12.92 

$10.60 

$12.32 

$13.16 

Value  of  fertilizer  constituents  ex- 
pressed in  percentage  of  value  of  grain 

27  2/10% 

28  1/4% 

27  7/10% 

24  1/4% 

Value  of  fertilizer  for  each  $1  of  grain 

sold 

$0,271/5 

$0,281  4 

$0.27  7/10 

$0,241  4 

(Prices  are  for  1905-1914  inclusive.) 


If  grain  growing  is  to  be  permanently  profitable,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  order  to  grow  the 
largest  possible  crops  of  wheat  there  must  be  kept  an  abundant 
supply  of  plant  food  in  the  soil.  Organic  matter  is  necessary  to 
secure  the  proper  physical  conditions  of  the  soil.  Heavy  soils 
deficient  in  vegetable  matter  are  hard  to  work  and  in  dry  sea- 
sons they  suffer  from  a loss  in  moisture.  Most  of  the  new  clay 
lands  in  upper  Wisconsin  are  low  in  nitrogen,  but  clover  in  the 
rotation  will  supply  this  needed  element.  Stable  manure  may 
be  used  for  the  same  purpose.  A light  dressing  of  manure  may 
be  applied  to  the  preceding  cultivated  crop  or  applied  directly 
to  the  wheat  as  a topdressing. 

Description  op  Some  Common  Wheats 

Turkey  Red.  This  is  a bearded,  white  chaff  wheat  with  a 
rather  short,  nearly  square  tapering  sp'ike.  The  kernels  are 
held  rather  tightly  in  the  chaff,  making  it  a little  harder  to 
thresh  than  the  average  wheat.  The  berry  is  quite  large,  vary- 
ing in  color  from  dark  amber  to  yellow.  As  a rule,  the  Turkey 
Red  wheats  are  good  bread  wheats,  but  some  strains  show  con- 
siderable superiority  to  others. 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 


5 


The  Pedigree  No.  2 and  the  Bacska  Pedigree  No.  408  belong 
to  this  group.  The  No.  408  has  a slightly  larger  spike  and 
berry.  These  are  very  good  bread  wheats. 

Marquis.  This  is  a beardless,  white  chaff  wheat.  The  kernels 
are  very  short  and  chunky  with  very  wide  crease,  and  dark 
amber  color. 

Fife.  The  Fife  resembles  the  Marquis  very  closely,  but  the 
berry  is  not  quite  so  short  and  chunky.  The  milling  and  bak- 
ing quality  of  these  wheats  is  unsurpassed. 


PIG.  1.— MARQUIS  IS  the:  BEST  WISCONSIN  SPRING  WHEAT 

This  field,  yielding-  36  bushels  to  the  acre,  shows  the  superiority  of  Marquis  wheat  in 
trials  at  the  Madison  station. 


Bearded  Spring.  In  the  spring  wheat  district,  these  wheats 
are  usually  called  Velvet  Chaff.  They  have  bearded,  smooth, 
white  chaff.  The  berry  has  a full  crease  and  is  somewhat  ta- 
pering. There  is  a dark-kerneled  and  a lighter-kerneled  type. 
As  a rule,  these  wheats  are  good  yielders  but  are  not  ranked  so 
high  in  milling  and  baking  qualities  as  Marquis  and  Fife. 
Some  of  the  names  commonly  applied  to  members  of  this  group 
of  wheats  are  Early  Java,  Preston,  Bearded  Fife,  and  Blue 
Ribbon. 

Prelude.  This  is  a bearded  spring  wheat  of  entirely  different 
type  than  the  Velvet  Chaff  group.  It  is  a short-strawed,  and 
stools  very  little.  It  matures  very  early,  ripening  about  the 
time  of  winter  wheat.  The  head  is  short  and  light  brown  in 
color.  The  berry  is  short,  chunky,  rounding  and  often  soft. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  305 


Tests  show  rather  low  yields  and  inferior  milling  and  baking 
quality. 

Blue  Stem.  This  variety  is  beardless  and  has  downy  or  hairy 
chaff.  Under  Wisconsin  conditions  it  has  not  proved  as  satis- 
factory as  Fife  and  Marquis,  and  in  most  sections  of  the  state 
it  is  more  susceptible  to  disease. 

Durum  or  Macaroni.  This  wheat  is  suited  to  dry  regions 
and  does  not  give  best  results  in  most  sections  of  Wisconsin 
as  a general  rule.  It  is  bearded  and  has  a very  large  square 
spike.  .The  kernel  is  very  large,  amber-colored  and  glassy.  In 
the  dry  areas  it  is  very  resistant  to  rust  but  in  the  Wisconsin 
climate  it  becomes  somewhat  more  susceptible  to  this  disease  and 
the  berry  has  a tendency  to  become  white  and  chalky. 

Pays  to  Grow  Pedigreed  Wheat 

The  farmer  cannot  afford  to  buy  new  and  untried  varieties. 
Experiments'  have  shown  conclusively  that  some  varieties 
which  have  proved  good  yielders  of  high  quality  in  regions 
where  they  are  well  adapted,  have  failed  when  grown  under  a 
new  environment:  Certain  varieties  well  adapted  to  adjoining 
states  have  failed  when  tested  in  Wisconsin. 

It  is  the  work  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  to  test 
different  varieties  and  find  which  ones  are  best  suited  for  con- 
ditions in  the  state.  The  tests  must  be  carried  on  through 
several  years  to  learn  which  varieties  will  do  well  in  unfavor- 
able as  well  as  favorable  years.  By  testing  a large  number 
over  a series  of  years,  those  which  show  the  highest  average 
performance  can  be  determined  and  the  undesirables  discarded. 

The  work  does  not  stop  with  tests  of  varieties,  but  the  most 
promising  individual  plants  are  selected  from  these  varieties 
and  new  pure  lines  are  started.  Comparisons  of  these  often 
bring  out  an  individual  strain  which  is  better  suited  to  the 
new  conditions  than  the  parent  stock  and  such  a new  line  then 
stands  out  as  a pedigree  strain  of  superior  quality. 

The  desirable  characteristics  in  wheat  are  hardiness,  high 
yield  and  good  bread-making  quality.  A high-yielding  wheat 
often  lacks  hardiness  and  some  very  hardy  wheats  are  low 
yielders.  If  an  individual  having  one  of  these  characters  is 
crossed  with  one  of  the  other  type  there  is  a possibility  that 
some  plants  in  the  progeny  will  have  a combination  of  both 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 


7 


hardiness  and  high-yielding  power.  Isolation  of  these  desir- 
able strains  cannot  be  accomplished  in  a single  season  but  takes 
years  of  painstaking  effort  on  the  part  of  the  plant  breeder. 

Good  Seed  Essential 

As  experiments  have  shown  quite  conclusively  that  the  best 
yields  of  wheat  are  obtained  by  sowing  plump  rather  than 
small  and  immature  seed,  only  grain  which  is  plump  and  uni- 


PIG.  2.— STRENGTH  OF  STRAW  VARIES  IN  THE  SAME  STRAIN 

These  breeding  rows  emphasize  the  importance  of  obtaining  tested  seed.  With  the 
same  chance  of  standing,  certain  lines  show  greater  weakness  than  others-  and  are 
discarded. 

form  in  size  should  be  sown.  The  grain  should  be  carefully 
cleaned  with  a good  fanning  mill  to  rid  it  of  shrunken  and  im- 
mature seed,  weeds  and  other  impurities.  One-year  old  winter 
wheat  seed  is  preferable  to  freshly  threshed  seed,  as  the  newly 
threshed  grain  does  not  germinate  as  readily  as  that  from  the 
previous  season.  Experiments  have  shown  that  a resting  stage 
of  about  two  weeks  is  necessary  to  secure  perfect  germination. 
An  added  reason  for  this  suggestion  is  that  it  is  often  impos- 
sible to  get  the  crop  threshed  early  enough  to  sow  at  the  proper 
time. 

Many  farmers  believe  that  after  a few  years  wheat  “runs 
out”  and  that  from  time  to  time  the  seed  should  be  changed. 
This  idea  is  wrong.  With  proper  care  in  grading  and  cleaning, 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  305 


so  as  to  keep  the  seed  pure,  a variety  adapted  to  the  climate 
and  soil  conditions  will  not  deteriorate. 

Advantages  of  Winter  Wheat 

Winter  wheat  outyields  spring  wheat  in  Wisconsin.  At  Mad- 
ison winter  wheat  outyielded  spring  wheat  on  an  average,  13 
bushels  to  the  acre ; at  Ashland,  8.2  bushels ; and  at  Marshfield 
4.3  bushels. 

Winter  wheat  is  able  to  use  plant  food  in  the  soil  more  effi- 
ciently than  spring  wheat.  The  fall  grown  crops  make  use  of 
the  plant  foods  which  otherwise  are  leached  out  by  autumn 
rains  and  would  be  lost. 

Winter  wheat  excels  as  a nurse  crop.  It  is  harvested  earlier 
than  spring  sown  grain  and  thus  gives  the  clover  crop  a better 
chance  to  compete  for  food  and  moisture. 

Winter  wheat  does  not  rust  as  does  spring  wheat.  The  rust 
seldom  attacks  winter  wheat  while  on  the  other  hand  spring 
wheat  is  often  damaged,  by  it. 

The  seeding  of  winter  wheat  comes  in  the  fall  while  the 
seeding  of  spring  wheat  comes  at  the  time  of  the  rush  of  spring 
work.  Where  help  is  hard  to  get  this  is  a factor  decidedly  in 
favor  of  winter  wheat. 

Winterkilling  is  the  chief  disadvantage  of  the  winter  wheat. 
When  partly  winterkilled  the  wheat  stools  so  profusely  that  it 
usually  pays  to  let  the  crop  stand.  When  winter  wheat  is  com- 
pletely winterkilled  early  oats  may  be  sown  to  get  a crop  from 
the  field.  When  rust  attacks  spring  wheat  there  is  no  way  of 
getting  a crop. 


Preparing  the  Soil  for  Wheat 

Land  intended  for  winter  wheat  should  be  plowed  in  July 
or  August  rather  than  in  September.  The  soil  should  be  given 
time  to  settle  between  plowing  and  seeding. 

Wheat  requires  a firm,  well-compacted  seed  bed.  This  al- 
lows the  seed  to  come  in  close  contact  with  the  soil  particles 
and  enables  the  roots  to  feed  readily  upon  the  available  plant 
food.  A heavy  rain  after  plowing  will  generally  compact  the 
soil  sufficiently.  If  the  weather  is  dry  it  will  be  necessary  to 
compact  the  soil  with  a roller  or  other  implement,  particularly 
if  a large  amount  of  vegetation  has  been  turned  under.  Green 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 


9 


vegetable  matter  plowed  under,  unless  compacted  immediately 
after  plowing,  causes  the  soil  to  dry  out  excessively.  The  har- 
row should  always  follow  the  roller  to  form  a mulch,  thus  pre- 
venting the  loss  of  moisture  which  is  brought  to  the  surface 
by  the  compacting  of  the  soil. 

It  is  also  necessary  for  the  surface  of  the  seed  bed  to  be  loose 
and  crumbly.  This  prevents  the  moisture  from  evaporating. 
Upon  heavy  soils  this  condition  is,  most  easily  secured  by  disk- 
ing immediately  after  plowing.  In  some  sections  the  same  re- 


ETG.  3.— WHEAT'  THRIVES  IN  UPPER  WISCONSIN 

The  heavy  soil  areas  of  the  northern  counties  are  well  adapted  to  growing  both 
winter  and  spring  wheats. 

suits  may  be  obtained  by  harrowing.  Some  conditions  arise 
where  it  is  necessary  to  disk  twice  and  harrow.  On  heavy  soils 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  pulverize  too  much,  for  if  heavy 
rains  should  follow  shortly  after  the  grain  is  sown  there  would 
be  danger  that  a crust  would  be  formed,  which  would  prevent 
the  grain  from  coming  up  well  and  making  a thrifty  growth. 

Rather  small  lumps  ranging  in  size  from  that  of  walnut  to 
that  of  a man’s  fist  and  a little  larger  are  no  objection  on  a 
winter  wheat  field,  as  the  action  of  frost  tends  to  pulverize  the 
lumps,  leaving  the  ground  in  good  condition  in  spring.  These 
lumps  also  tend  to  hold  the  coating  of  snow  over  the  field,  pre- 
venting the  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  soil,  which  is  one  of 
the  causes  of  winterkilling. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  305 


All  lands  intended  for  spring  wheat  should  be  fall  plowed. 
This  rule  applies  to  the  management  of  rather  light  and  loamy 
soils  as  well  as  heavy  clays.  The  lighter  soils  should  be  fall 
plowed  in  order  to  give  the  land  time  to  settle  and  become  firm. 
Heavy  soils  need  the  effect  of  winter  freezing  to  pulverize 
them  and  improve  their  tilth.  Another  very  good  reason  for 
fall  plowing  is  that  wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as  possible 
in  spring. 

The  Best  Time  to  Seed 

In  the  northeru  section  of  the  state,  winter  wheat  may  be 
sown  from  August  25  to  September  10.  In  the  southern  part 
of  the  state  it  is  sown  between- September  10  and  20,  varying 
somewhat  with  the  season.  Enough  growth  should  be  made 
so  that  the  leafage  may  serve  as  a mulch  for  the  roots,  thus 
preventing  early  thawing.  Besides,  if  the  root  development 
is  strong  there  is.  less  danger  of  heaving  and  consequent  winter- 
killing. 

Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  just  as  early  as  the  season  per- 
mits. As  a rule,  there  is  less  danger  of  ‘ * puddling  ’ ’ heavy  soils 
early  in  the  season  than  later,  when  heavy  rains  have  partly 
destroyed  the  mellowness  caused  by  frost  action.  The  best 
rule  is  to  sow  wheat  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to 
work  well.  Some  of  the  best  wheat  ever  grown  in  the  Lake 
Superior  region  was  sown  the  latter  part  of  March.  If  condi- 
tions permit  getting  on  the  land  before  the  soil  has  been  settled 
by  the  action  of  spring  rains,  much  less  work  is  needed  to  put 
the  ground  in  shape  for  seeding  than  is  required  later  in  the 
season.  Working  the  ground  twice  with  the  disk,  spring  tooth 
harrow,  or  cultivator,  and  following  with  a smoothing  harrow 
is  usually  sufficient  to  put  the  seed  bed  in  good  condition. 

Drilled  Wheat  Best 

The  drill  is  preferred  to  the  broadcast  seeder  for  several 
reasons.  In  the  first  place  less  seed  is  needed  to  obtain  a good 
stand,  and  in  the  second  place  the  drill  puts  the  seed  at  a more 
uniform  depth,  insuring  greater  uniformity  in  germination. 
Broadcasted  winter  wheat  suffers  more  from  winterkilling  than 
drilled  wheat. 

The  depth  of  seeding  will  vary  with  soil  conditions.  The 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 


11 


rule  should  be  to  place  the  seed  deep  enough  to  come  in  contact 
with  moist  soil.  This  is  usually  from  one  to  three  inches.  In 
wet  seasons  on  heavy  clays  care  should  be  used  not  to  sow 
spring  wheat  too  deep. 

Time  of  Seeding  Determines  Rate 

Several  factors  influence  the  rate  at  which  grain  should  be 
sown.  Among  these  are  the  kind  of  soil  and  its  condition  with 
respect  to  fertility,  time  of  seeding,  the  size  of  the  kernel  and 
the  stooling  habit  of  the  variety.  As  a rule  less  seed  is  needed 
on  rich  soil  to  secure  the  same  thickness  of  stand  as  on  poor 


FIG.  4.— THRESHING  WINTER  WHEAT  FROM  THE  SHOOK 


Although  threshing  from  the  stack  is  preferable  with  all  small  grains,  winter  wheat 
must  be  threshed  from  the  shock  to  have  the  seed  available  for  planting  the  same 
fall. 

soil.  Grain  usually  stools  out  better  on  good  than  on  poor 
land.  Less  grain  is  usually  needed  on  heavy  than  on  light  soils. 

The  rate  is  also  largely  determined  by  the  time  of  seeding. 
Winter  wheat  sown  late  in  August  or  early  in  September  in 
upper  and  central  Wisconsin  and  about  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber in  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  the  state  will  have 
ample  time  to  stool  out  if  a sufficient  amount  of  moisture  is 
present  in  the  soil,  and  as  a consequence  less  seed  is  needed 
than  if  sown  three  or  four  weeks  later. 

The  size  of  kernels  must  also  be  considered  in  determining 
the  rate  at  which  to  sow  wheat.  To  obtain  the  same  stand  the 
gauge 'should  be  opened  wider  when  sowing  the  larger-  than 
when  sowing  the  smaller-kerneled  varieties.  For  example,  ex- 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  305 


periments  have  shown  that  Durum  wheat,  a large-kerneled  and 
poor-stooling  variety,  requires  approximately  one-half  bushel 
more  seed  to  the  acre  than  do  the  Fife  and  Marquis  types.  If, 
for  any  reason,  it  is  necessary  to  sow  seed  which  is  shrunken, 
badly  discolored,  or  somewhat  damaged  and  immature,  consid- 
erably more  must  be  sown  because  of  its  size,  condition,  or  low 
vitality.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  added  that  all  seed 
should  be  tested  to  determine  its  germinating  power.  The 
amount  of  seed  of  good  quality  to  sow  will  vary  from  six  to 
eight  pecks  an  acre  for  both  winter  and  spring  varieties. 

Thresh  From  Stack,  Not  Shock 

In  order  to  secure  bright,  sound,  high-grade  wheat  it  is  necr 
essary  to  harvest  the  crop  as  soon  as  it  is  ripe.  It  is  a good 
plan  to  cover  the  shocks  with  bundles  as  a protection  against 
rains.  Some  kinds  of  wheat,  such  as  the  Marquis  and  Fife  and 
the  hard  winter  varieties,  thresh  with  difficulty  if  cut  when 
under-ripe.  On  the  other  hand,  if  allowed  to  stand  too  long 
after  ripening,  the  berry  becomes  bleached  and  discolored. 

Threshing  wheat  from  the  shock  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
Much  loss,  particularly  during  wet  seasons,  results  from  this 
practice.  As  soon  as  the  grain  is  dry,  it  should  be  stacked,  or, 
better  still,  stored  in  barn  or  shed.  When  wheat  is  allowed  to 
sweat  in  the  stack  or  barn  for  five  or  six  weeks,  its  color  an <5 

quality  is  very  much  improved.  If  threshing  must  be  done 
shortly  after  stacking,  the  grain  should  be  spread  out  thinly 
upon  the  barn  or  granary  floor  to  prevent  heating. 


rJ"'  0 insure  against  winterkilling  obtain  hardy  varieties ; 

plant  early;  sow  at  a heavier  rate  if  seeding  is  de- 
layed ; work  up  a good  seed  bed ; have  the  field  in  a good 
state  of  fertility. 


Some  Wheats  Besist  Winterkilling  Better  Than  Others 

The  winter  of  1917-1918  was  especially  severe  and  gave  an 
excellent  study  of  winter  hardiness  on  the  Madison  station 
plots.  The  fall  was  so  cold  that  even  though  the  plots  were 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 


13 


soAvn  in  ample  time  the  growth  was  very  small  at  the  time  the 
ground  froze.  In  many  cases  high  yielders  proved  non-resist- 
ant to  winterkilling.  But  fortunately,  Pedigree  No.  2 was 
among  the  few  that  survived,  though  not  without  some  loss. 

Observations  show  that  winterkilling  has  been  most  severe 
on  fields  where  the  plants,  had  a small  growth  in  the  fall.  This 
occurred  on  fields  poorly  prepared  or  low  in  fertility. 

If  the  winter  wheat  stand  is  thin  in  the  spring  do  not  plow  it 
up  and  sow  another  crop  at  once  but  allow  it  to  stand  until  all  the 
other  small  grains  are  planted  and  by  that  time  a better  esti- 


FIG.  5.— PEDIGREE  NO.  2 SURVIVED  THE  WINTER  OF'  1917-18 


Hardier  strains  are  being  developed  from  the  plants  of  Pedigree  No.  2 wheat  (left) 
which  survived  the  severe  weather  early  in  1918.  Contrast  these  rows  with  the  winter- 
killed  rows  of  other  varieties  as  shown  by  the  stakes  at  the  right. 

mate  of  the  growth  can  be  made.  Winter  wheat  will  stool  very 
profusely  when  thin,  and  even  through  the  plants  may  appear 
scattering,  fair  yields  may  result. 

As  a further  protection  against  winterkilling  a light  top 
dressing  of  straw  or  strawy  manure  is  found  very  beneficial. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  leave  the  manure  in  bunches  as  it 

may  smother  the  wheat  under  it. 

» 

Troublesome  Diseases’  of  Wheat 

Rust,  smut,  and  scab  are  the  three  diseases  which  cause  the 
most  loss  in  wheat  fields.  Stem  rust  is  named  from  the  rust 
colored  spots  on  the  stem  and  leaves.  The  spots  turn  black 
about  harvest  time.  No  treatment  of  the  seed  is  recommended, 
as  a solution  strong  enough  to  kill  the  rust  also  kills  the  wheat. 
Two  kinds  of  smut  infect  wheat.  The  loose  smut,  which  is 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  305 


not  very  troublesome,  affects  the  whole  head,  and  leaves  bare 
the  stalk  to  which  the  flowers  are  attached. 

Covered  smut  is  a serious  pest.  The  disease  is  not  easily  rec- 
ognized in  the  field,  as  the  chaff  is  not  attacked.  The  kernels, 
however,  become  a mass  of  smut  spores  and  a brownish  rounded 
ball  of  smut  takes  the  place  of  the  berry.  The  disagreeab^ 
fishy  odor  gives  the  disease  the  name  of  ‘ ‘ stinking  smut.  ’ ’ The 
mass  is  broken  at  threshing  time  and  the  smut  spores  lodge  on 
the  wheat  kernels,  ready  to  grow  when  the  grain  is  planted. 

This  disease  is  controlled  by  the  formalin  treatment,  as  is 
oat  smut.  The  solution  is  made  as  follows : 1 pint  of  formalde- 
hyde (40  per  cent)  in  30  gallons  of  water,  temperature  about 
60 °F.  Dip  the  seed,  in  loosely  filled  burlap  or  gunny  sacks, 
into  the  solution  and  soak  for  five  minutes.  Drain  and  spread 
the  grain  on  a clean  floor  or  canvas  and  cover  with  sacks  or 
canvas  for  two  hours.  Stir  occasionally  with  rake  or  shovel 
to  hasten  drying.  Sow  as  soon  as  the  seed  will  run  freely,  or 
dry  thoroughly  and  store  in  clean  bags  or  bins  until  seeding 
time. 

Scab  is  one  of  the  diseases  recently  discovered.  The  head, 
or  part  of  it,  sometimes  only  a single  flower,  turns  white,  and 
as  the  plant  approaches  maturity  a pinkish  color  shows  on  the 
chaff  or  the  stalk  of  the  head.  This  disease  has  caused  great 
Joss  in  some  wheat  fields.  No  method  of  controlling  it  has  been 
found. 

Rotations  for  Wheat 

Wheat  should  be  grown  in  rotation  with  other  crops,  only. 
This  is  true  of  all  cereals,  if  not  all  crops. 

A standard  four-year  rotation  is  clover,  mixed  hay,  culti- 
vated crops,  wheat.  Manure  is  applied  to  the  sod  before  corn. 
This  rotation  is  a good  one  for  the  production  of  spring  wheat, 
but  it  is  not  suitable  for  winter  wheat,  e*xcept  where  the  corn 
or  other  cultivated  crop  'can  be  removed  very  early.  Limited 
tests  indicate  the  possiblity  of  sowing  wheat  in  the  corn  at  the 
last  cultivation.  This  method  has  been  very  successful  with 
rye,  and  it  is  regularly  followed  at  the  Ellis  Junction  sub- 
station. 

This  rotation  may  be  made  into  a five-year  rotation  by 
sowing  timothy  with  the  clover  and  running  hay  two  years 
instead  of  one. 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 


15  ' 


A good  rotation  useful  for  farms  devoted  largely  to  grain 
production  is:  corn,  oats  or  barley  seeded  to  clover;  winter 
wheat  seeded  to  clover;  clover  (manured).  In  this  rotation 
one  of  the  clover  fields  may  be  used  for  pasture.  The  two 
clover  crops  help  to  maintain  the  nitrogen  supply. 

An  excellent  rotation  for  winter  wheat  is  clover,  cultivated 
crop,  peas  (field  or  canning),  and  winter  wheat  seeded  to 
clover.  The  land  is  disked  immediately  after  the  peas  have 
been  removed,  and  the  wheat  is  sown  late  in  August  or  early  in 


fig.  6.— which  variety  would  you  choose? 

The  loss  from  lodging  grain  may  be  as  high  as  50  per  cent.  Great  differences  in  the 
stiffness  of  straw  are  found  in  different  varieties. 

September.  This  rotation  has  given  the  best  results  of  any 
tried  at  the  branch  experiment  station  at  Ashland  Junction.  It 
saves  labor,  since  no  plowing  is  required  for  the  wheat,  and  it 
provides  a firm  seed  bed. 

Winter  wheat  may  properly  be  the  first  crop  on  new  land, 
providing  the  land  is  broken  in  midsummer  so  as  to  allow  time 
for  the  soil  to  settle  well.  Spring  wheat  may  also  be  sown  on 
new  breaking,  but  only  when  the  plowing  is  done  in  the  fall. 

On  rich  soils  where  there  is  difficulty  with  small  grains 
lodging,  the  first  rotation  suggested  may  be  used,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  corn  should  follow  corn  or  small  grain  should  fol- 
low small  grain.  In  the  latter  case  the  winter  wheat  could 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  305 


follow  an  oat  or  barley  crop,  thus  affording  ample  time  to  plow 
the  stubble  and  get  the  wheat  in  the  ground. 

When  it  is  desired  to  sow  winter  wheat  on  sod  land,  the  sod 
should  be  well  plowed,  a jointer  being  used  to  turn  down  all 
grass.  The  plowing  should  be  done  early,  no  later  than  August 
15.  The  ground  should  be  well  rolled,  then  disked.  This  will 
aid  in  the  rotting  of  the  sod  by  preventing  the  growth  of  grass 
between  furrows,  and  it  will  allow  for  the  absorption  of  rain- 
fall. When  seeding  time  comes  the  land  should  be  thoroughly 
packed  with  the  roller  so  as  to  provide  a firm  seed  bed. 

Variety  Tests  Determine  Best  Winter  and  Spring  Wheats 

Tests  to  determine  the  best  varieties  of  wheat  adapted  for 
different  sections  of  Wisconsin  have  been  in  progress  at  the  ex- 
periment station  at  Madison  and  at  the  branch  stations  at  Ash- 
land and  Marshfield  since  1906. 

One  hundred  thirty-six  varieties  and  strains  of  spring  and 
winter  wheat  have  been  tested  and  most  of  them  have  been 
discarded.  Only  those  that  showed  promise  were  continued 
for  a longer  period  than  five  years.  The  yields  tabulated  re- 
port only  on  the  most  promising  varieties,  beginning  with  the 
year  1914. 

Of  the  winter  wheat  varieties  those  of  outstanding  import- 
ance are  the  Ped.  No.  2— Turkey  Red  and  Ped.  No.  408 — Bac-' 
ska.  Other  varieties  have  shown  very  good  promise  so  far  as 
yield  is  concerned,  but  these  two  are  not  only  high  yielders 
but  are  also  the  two  best  wheats  from  the  milling  and  baking 
standpoint. 

Of  the  spring  varieties  the  Red  Fife  and  Marquis  show  the 
best  yields.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  the  Marquis  is  out- 
standingly the  best  variety  at  Madison  while  the  Red  Fife  gave 
the  highest  average  yield  at  Ashland.  The  yields  at  Marsh- 
field are  rather  inconclusive, — Marquis,  Red  Fife  and  Early 
Java  are  about  on  a par.  Taking  into  consideration  yield, 
quality  and  availability  of  seed  the  following  recommendations 
are  made : 

For  southern  Wisconsin,  Pedigree  No.  2 — Turkey  Red  for  a 
winter  variety  and  Wisconsin  No.  50 — Marquis  for  spring. 

For  the  northern  section  of  the  state,  Pedigree  No.  2 and 
Pedigree  No.  408  are  recommended  for  winter  varieties  and 
Red  Fife  and  Marquis  for  spring. 


Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin 


17 


Table  II — Spring  Wheat  Variety  Tests — Madison 


Variety 

1914 

1915  . 

1916 

1917 

1918 

No.  of 
years 

Aver- 

age 

Marctuis,  WTis.,  No.  50. ...  - 

15.2 

35.0 

20.3 

77 

30.5 

5 

23.7 

Fife.  Minn.,  No.  163 

10.0 

23,0 

16.7 

8.4 

28.4 

5 

17.3 

Blue  Stem,  Wis..  No.  30 

11.5 

24.0  1 

I 14.7 

8.0 

27.2 

5 

17.1 

Bine  Stem,  Ped  No  36 

24.0 

12.0 

7.4 

25.1 

4 

13.7 

Prelude  WTis  No.  49 

40.0 

12.1 

15.4 

19.3 

4 

17.4 

Bearded  Red  Fife.  Wis..  No.  60 

23.0 

15.1 

8.4 

27.7 

4 

16.8 

Rerl  Fife.  W'i^  No  46 

23.6 

13.6  1 

6.4 

19.8 

4 

12.7 

Ped  9171 

i7.4  ; 

8.4 

26.8 

3 

14.9 

Table  III— Winter  Wheat  Variety  Tests — Madison 


V ariet  y 


Turkey  Red,  Ped.  No.  2 

Turkey  Red,  Kan.  No.  570 

Egyptian  Amber,  Wis.  No.37 

Kharkov.,  Ped.  No.  609, 

Red  Wave,  Wis.  No.  54. '. .! 

Nixon,  Wis.,  No.  59 

Turkey  Red.  Ped.  No.  14 

Farmer’s  Friend,  Wis.  No.  55. . . 

Orange,  Wis.,  No.  56 

New  Genessee,  Wis.  No.  61 

Gluten  Berry,  Wis.  No.  53 1 

Turkey  Red,  Wis.  No.  45 | 

Beloglina,  Wis.  No.  71 

Early  Russian,  Wis.  No.  51. 

Mich.  Amber,  Wis.  No.  73 

Budapest,  Wis.  No.  72 

Dawson’s  Golden  Chaff. 

Ped.  No.  39 

Beloglina,  Wis.  No.  70.. 

Ped.  No.  38 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


No.  of  Aver- 
years  age 


40.7 

43.2 

50.0 

39.0 


37.6 

48.4 

39.0 

33.0 

55.3 

54.6 

42.5 

56.6 

44.0 

45.3 

40.0 


i 


45.8 

27.4 

25.5 

29.0 

27.3 

30.4 

28.5 

27.8 

35.0 

24.6 

32.4 

30.5 

30.0 

37.0 

32.7 
34.3 


27.0 

29.0 
27.7 


51.4 

49.0 

51.4 

40.4 

57.0 

51.7 

49.7 

48.3 

51.0 

52.7 

47.0 

52.0 

43.0 

44.3 
44.9 

42.5 

49.5 

37.7 

44.0 


17.7*  5 

W.  K.  5 

W.  K.  5 

19.3  5 

W.  Iv.  4 

W.  K.  4 

12.5  4 

W.  K.  4 

W.  K.  4 

W.  Iv.  4 

W.  K.  4 

11.7  3 

14.0  3 

W.  K.  3 

W.  K.  3 

W.  K.  3 


38.6 

33.6 
33.2 

32.1 
34.9 

34.2 

33.3 
33.2 

32.5 

30.6 

29.8 

31.4 

29.0 

27.1 

25.9 

25.6 


W.  K. 
5.7 

W.  Iv. 


3 25.5 

3 24.1 

3 23.9 


* Winterkilled. 


Table  IV. — Spring  Wheat  Variety  Tests — Ashland  Branch  Station 


V ariety 

1914* 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

Aver- 
age 
4 yrs. 

Aver- 
age 
5 yrs. 

9171  Red  Fife 

25.9 

18.2 

* i 

23.8 

17.1 

21.3 

17.0 

10253  Red  Fife 

33.0 

18.5 

20.0 

11.8 

10.2 

8.8 

20.8 

19.4 

16.7 

Minn.  No.  169 

33 . 9 

15.5 

18.0 

15.5 

Marquis 

33.8 

15.5 

18.0 

19.0 

15.2 

9199  Blue  Stem 

28.3 

14.4 

15.7 

12.8 

17.8 

14.2 
13.7 
18.6 

13.3 
12.9 

Common  Blue  Stem 

29.0 

13 . 3 

17.6 

8.7 

17.2 

9186  Red  Fife 

25.4 

12.0 

16.8 

14.0 

17.0 

10294  Blue  Stem 

25.0 

11.3 

18.0 

12.1 

■16.6 

Early  Java 

26.9 

11.2 

16.6 

9.8 

9.1 

16.1 

9194  Blue  Stem 

25.6 

13.9 

14.8 

13.4 

10.7 

i 

■ 


No  yield  due  to  rust. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  305 


Table  V. — Winter  Wheat  Variety  Tests — Ashland  Branch  Station 


Variety 

1914  , 

1915 

j 1916 

1917 

1918 

No.  of 
years 

Aver- 
i age 

Ped.  408  Bacska 

17.7 

51.0 

! 35.2 

15.8 

4 

29.9 

Mich.  No.  117 

22.1 

1 55.0 

28.6 

12.9 

4 

29.7 

Egyptian  Amber 

21.2 

1 56.0 

26.8 

8.1 

4 

28.0 

Poole 

16.4 

59.0 

27.5 

7.7 

4 

27.7 

Gypsy 

17.6 

50.4 

31.0 

9.0 

4 

27.0 

Ped.  No.  208  Kharkov 

14.9 

55.0 

24.3 

13.6 

4 

27.0 

Ped.  No.  10330  Kharkov 

21.0 

j3 

49.7 

20.7 

15.1 

4 

26.6 

Ped.  No.  308,  Kharkov 

15.1 

& 

52.0 

23.5 

12.4 

4 

25.7 

Tasmanian  Red 

15.8 

O 

48.0 

27.6 

8.4 

4 

24.9 

Plymouth 

15.3 

GC 

45.3 

27.6 

10.3 

4 

24.6 

Red  Rock 

11.4 

© 

E 

50.0 

25.3 

3.7 

4 

22.6 

Craig’s  Favorite 

14.6 

o 

45.0 

24.6 

5.6 

4 

22.5 

Ped.  No.  11837 

50.9 

38.6 

14.4 

3 

34.6 

Ped.  No.  11923  B 

w 

49.5 

37.3 

14.8 

3 

33.9 

Ped.  No.  31011— Hybrid 



50.2 

35.6 

14.3 

3 

33.4 

Ped  No.  11825 

49.2 

34.0 

16.3 

3 

33.2 

Mich  No.  26504  

35.6 

17.7 

2 

26.6 

Ped  No.  2,  Turkey  Red 

29.6 

14.0 

2 

21  8 

Mich.  No.  28408  ...‘ 

33.6 

8.4 

2 

21.0 

Table  VI — -Spring  Wheat  Variety  Tests — Marshfield  Branch 

Station 


Variety 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

| 

1918 

No.  of 
years  j 

Aver- 

age 

Early  Java 

31.0 

10.8 

19.0 

13.6 

16.6 

15.3 

6 

17.7 

Red  Fife 

24.6 

2.7 

22.6 

15.5 

17.9 

18.3 

6 

17.0 

Marquis 

22.0 

5.0 

17.9 

18.6 

18.9 

17.3 

6 

16.6 

Minn.  No.  L69 

27.0 

3.5 

16.8 

13.0 

16.0 

5 

15.4 

Table  VII— Winter  Wheat  Variety  Tests — Marshfield  Branch 

Station 


V ariety 

1916 

1917 

1918 

No.  of 
years 

Average 

Ped.  10330  Kharkov 

27.0 

31.' 

18.4 

3 

25.7 

Gypsy . 

36.0 

33.5 

4.5 

3 

24.3 

Ped.  308  Kharkov 

27.0 

21.6 

28.7 

13.9 

3 

23.2 

Ped  208  Kharkov 

30.1 

16.3 

3 

22.6 

Tasmanian  Red 1.. 

21.6 

24.5 

19.7 

3 

21.9 

Ped  408  Bacska 

15.1 

33.7 

14.6 

3 

21.4 

European  Century 

24.0 

28.9 

11.2 

3 

21.7 

Ped.  1045  Kharkov 

18.9 

27.5 

16.3 

3 

20.9 

Craig’s  Favorite 

25.9 

25.6 

6.9 

3 

19.4 

Ped  208  Padui 

17.0 

20.1 

20.3 

3 

19.1 

Red  Rock 

19.9 

25.9 

6.4 

3 

18.6 

Poole’s 

16.7 

28.9 

7.7 

3 

17.2 

Shepherd’ s Perfection 

13.5 

24.4 

10.9 

3 

16.7 

Ped  No  2 Turkey  Red 

15.2 

l 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


Che  President  of  the  University 
3.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 

V.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
!.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 
L S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science ; in  charge 
of  Stallion  Enrollment 
\ A.  Aust,  Horticulture 
5.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
r.  H.  Benkendorf,  Dairy  Husbandry 
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).  S.  Bullock,  Animal  Husbandry 
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Iernice  Dodge,  Home  Economics 
1.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Hus- 
bandry 

!.  B.  Fred,  Agricultural  Bacteriology 
7.  D.  Frost,  Agricultural  Bacteriology 
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7.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
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<5r.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
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llen  Hillstrom,  Home  Economics 
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Journalism 

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bandry 

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J.  B.  Hayes,  Poultry  Husbandry 

C.  S.  Hean.  Agr.  Library 

E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 

S.  W.  Mendum,  Agricultural  Economics 
Maude  Miller.  Plant  Pathology 

Nell  B.  Nichols,  Agricultural  Journalism 

D.  H.  Reid,  Poultry  Husbandry 

F.  X.  Ritger,  Executive  Secretary 
Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agricultural  Chemistry 
H.  H.  Sommer,  Agr.  Chemistry 

David  Smith,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Otto  Stader,  Veterinary  Science 


Bulletin  306 1 


April,  1919 


(35  Soil  Series  27)2 


The  Soils  of  Northern  Wisconsin 

A.  R.  WHITSON 

T.  J.  DUNNEWALD,  CARL  THOMPSON  */(/£  . 

§ Wo 


FERTILE  SOILS  ARE  FOUND'  IN  UPPER  WISCONSIN 

There  are  thousands  of  acres  of  good  soil  under  the  brush  and  stumps  of  northern 
Wisconsin.  The  state  has  taken  the  inventory  of  this  soil  which  helps  you  select  your 
new  farm. 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin1 

IN  COOPERATION  WITH 

Wisconsin  Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey2  and 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
Bureau  of  Soils 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


The  temperature  and  rainfall  in  northern  Wisconsin  are  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  clover  and  pasture,  small  grains,  root  crops  and 
many  other ' crops.  The  rain  comes  when  the  plants  are  making  their 
most  rapid  growth.  While  the  winters  are  cold  these  sections  have 
a clear  dry  atmosphere.  The  summers  are  moderately  cool  with  a 
uniform  temperature.  The  growing  season  ranges  from  110  to  140 
days.  Pages  6 to  10. 

The  fertility  of  new  soils  is  easily  maintained  with  the  right  kind  of 
treatment  from  the  start.  Livestock  plays  an  important  part. 

Pages  11  to  12. 

There  are  ton  principal  soil  types  in  upper  Wisconsin.  These  in- 
clude sands,  light  sandy  loams,  heavy  sandy  loams,  silt  loam  with  a 
well-drained  subsoil,  silt  loam  with  a heavy  subsoil,  silt  loam  on  lime- 
stone, heavy  red  clay,  poorly  drained  soils,  peat  and  muck,  and 
rough  or  very  stony  lands.  Pages  13  to  15. 

Sand  soils  have  advantages  as  well  as  disadvantages.  They  do  not 
hold  moisture  as  well,  and  are  more  affected  by  dry  weather,  and  are 
lower  in  plant  foods  than  the  heavier  soils.  However,  they  can  make 
better  use  of  light  rains  than  heavy  soils  and  they  warm  up  more 
quickly  in  the  spring.  While  they  are  not  the  equal  of  the  heavier 
soils,  when  properly  managed  they  produce  fair  crops  of  clover,  rye, 
soy-beans,  and  corn.  Pages  16  to  18. 

Light  sandy  loams  are  finer  and  hold  moisture  better  than  the  sands. 

They  have  more  plant  food.  The  best  crops  are  rye,  clover,  corn, 
and  soy-beans.  Potatoes  can  best  be  grown  if  the  fertility  is  main- 
tained. Pages  19  to  20. 

Heavy  sandy  loam  is  the  most  common  soil  and  one  of  the  most! 
valuable  in  upper  Wisconsin.  It  is  well  adapted  to  a wide  range  of 
crops.  Dairying  and  potato  raising  are  the  two  most  important  lines 
of  farming.  Pages  21  to  24. 

Silt  loam  soil  with  a well-drained  sub-soil  follow  the  heavy  sands  in 

acreage.  They  are  especially  adapted  to  grass  and  pasture,  small 
grains,  root  crops  and  clover.  Dairying  and  stock  raising  are  profit- 
able on  this  type  of  soil.  Pages  25  to  27. 

The  silt  loam  with  a heavy  subsoil  is  one  of  the  most  uniform  soils 

in  the  region.  It  is  fertile  and  develops  into  excellent  farm  land. 
It  is  particularly  adapted  to  small  grain  and  grasses.  This  soil  type 
is  often  wrongly  called  a clay  loam.  Pages  28  to  29. 

Silt  loam  soils  on  limestone  are  very  fertile.  This  section  is  rap- 
idly becoming  one  of  the  richest  parts  of  the  state.  Pages  30  to  32. 

A million  acres  of  red  clay  lies  in  the  Lake  Superior  district.  It 

is  especially  adapted  to  small  grain  and  hay  production. 

Pages  33  to  34. 

The  poorly  drained  soils  'are  grouped  in  two  classes:  poorly  drained 

sandy  soil,  and  poorly  drained  heavy  soils.  Wet  lands  need  drainage 
before  they  are  of  agricultural  value.  Pages  35  to  36. 

Peat  and  muck  lands  need  drainage  and  fertilizers.  If  uncleared 

they  require  more  effort  to  stump  and  brush.  They  are  subject  to 
earlier  frosts.  Certain  crops  produce  heavily  with  the  proper  man- 
agement. • Pages  37  to  28. 

Rough  or  very  stony  land  is  best  adapted  to  pasture  or  forestry  pur- 
poses. Its  value  is  limited.  Pages  39  to  40. 


The  Soils  of  Upper  Wisconsin 


One  hundred  thousand  farms  of  80  acres  each  are  waiting  the  farmer 
in  upper  Wisconsin.  This  land  has  a good  soil,  has  an  abundant  rain- 
fall, is  close  to  the  railroads,  and  has  access  to  large  markets. 

Nearly  one  half  of  the  18,500,000  acres  in  upper  Wisconsin  is  al- 
ready occupied  in  farms  in  all  stages  of  developement — there  is  left 
more  than  8,500,000  acres  of  good  farm  land,  as  well  as  2,000,000 
acres  suitable  only  for  pasture  and  forestry  purposes. 

Upper  Wisconsin  appeals  to  the  business  farmer.  The  value  of  the 
crops  produced  per  acre  of  improved  land  in  upper  Wisconsin  is  higher 
than  in  the  southern  Wisconsin  counties  or  the  average  Illinois,  Iowa, 
or  Ohio  country.  Here  is  the  proof  taken  from  the  government  fig- 
ures : 

In  Marathon  country  according  to  the  U.  S.  census,  the  average 
value  per  acre  of  improved  land  of  all  crops  produced  in  1909  was 
$15.00.  In  Dodge  and  Fond  du  Lac  counties,  which  are  two  of  the 
richest  counties  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  the  average  value 
was  $14.00  per  acre,  and  in  Dane  county  $15.00  per  acre.  In  the 
state  of  Illinois  for  the  same  year  the  average  production  per  acre 
was  $13.00,  in  Iowa  $11.00,  in  Ohio  $12.00  and  in  Wisconsin  $12.00. 

Just  to  see  what  is  being  done  in  developing  upper  Wisconsin  notice 
the  figures  taken  from  the  census  figures  for  three  periods,  1890, 
1900,  and  1910.  Three  of  the  typical  counties  in  the  northern  section 
of  the  state  are  shown.  These  counties  have  been  settled  during  the 
past  30  years  and  are  similar  in  their  general  character  to  the  lands 
yet  to  be  developed.  Here  are  the  figures: 

Development  of  Typical  Counties  in  Wisconsin. 


County 

Year 

Number 
ot'  all 
farms 

Acres  of 
farm  land 
improved 

Value  of 
all  farm 
crops 

Value  of 
all  dairy 
products 

Cl  a.rk  

1890 

2,086 

71,700 

1900 

3,456 

120,964 

$1,304,210 

$305,484 

1910 

4,196 

151,891 

2,151,733 

1,171,341 

Marathon 

....  1890 

2,789 

83,863 

1900 

4,276 

145,060 

i , 7 i 3, 544 

282.272 

1910 

5,080 

184,153 

2,758,318 

883,816 

Barron 

1890 

1,859 

64.618 

1900 

3,004 

117,407 

1,056,385 

196,012 

1910 

3,852 

170,203 

2,156,442 

792,647 

4 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  land  in  farms  in  these  counties  has  about 
doubled  in  the  twenty  year  period,  that  the  value  of  all  farm  crops 
has  increased  about  four  times  in  Clark  and  Marathon  counties  and 
more  than  five  times  in  Barron  county  in  twenty  years.  The  in- 
crease in  dairy  products  is  even  more  remarkable.  In  all  of  these 


counties  the  value  of  dairy  products  was  more  than  trebled  in  the 
ten  year  period  1900-1910. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  soils  in  this  part  of  the  state. 
They  vary  from  heavy  clays  to  light  sands.  There  are  considerable 
areas  of  level  lands  although  for  the  most  part  the  country  is  rolling 
and  in  some  sections  it  is  very  rough  and  broken.  Most  of  the  soils 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


5 


have  good  natural  drainage  but  some  have  poor  underdrainage  and 
there  are  considerable  areas  of  marshes.  The  soils  also  vary  in  the 
amount  of  vegetable  matter  or  humus  they  contain. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  report  to  describe  all  of  these  different 
kinds  of  soils  and  the  purpose  of  the  map  is  to  show  where  the  soils 
are  located. 


6 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


CHAPTER  I. 

CLIMATE  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 

The  climate  of  the  country,  together  with  its  soil,  determine  the 
crops  which  can  be  grown.  By  climate  we  mean  the  amount  and 
distribution  of  the  rainfall  and  the  temperature. 

> 

RAINFALL 

In  regard  to  rainfall,  both  the  total  amount  and  the  way  it  is  dis- 
tributed through  the  growing  season  must  be  considered.  As  an  av- 
erage of  the  past  nineteen  years,  the  total  rainfall  for  the  year  in 
northern  Wisconsin  is  just  a little  under  30  inches.  Of  this  about  21 
inches  comes  during  the  six  months  from  April  1st  to  October  1st  and 
the  average  by  months  is  as  follows: 

April 2£  inches 

May  31/2  inches 

June  and  July 4%  inches,  each 

August 314  inches 

September  : 3 y2  inches 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  heaviest  rainfall  comes  during  midsummer 
when  crops  are  making  their  most  rapid  growth  and  require  the 
most  moisture. 

There  is  of  course  considerable  variation  in  the  distribution  of  rain- 
fall during  the  season  from  year  to  year  and  also  in  the  total  amount 
from  year  to  year.  Dry  spells  of  two  to  four  weeks  in  length  occur 
occasionally  and  at  any  time  of  the  year,  but  northern  Wisconsin  suf- 
fers less  from  such  dry  periods  than  most  other  portions  of  the  coun- 
try. These  dry  periods  of  course  affect  crops  growing  on  the  very 
lightest  soils  more  than  on  heavier  soils  and  yet  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  a moderate  rainfall  of  % to  y2  inch,  coming  during  a dry 
period,  is  more  helpful  on  light  soils  than  on  heavier  soils  because  it 
reaches  to  a greater  depth,  and  a larger  portion  of  it  is  available  to 
crops.  As  a rule,  therefore,  it  is  only  on  the  very  lightest  sandy 
soil  that  crops  suffer  much  from  drought. 

The  relative  freedom  of  this  section  of  the  country  from  the  hot 


CLIMATE  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


7 


dry  southwest  winds  which  occur  in  the  country  farther  south  also 
means  less  loss  from  drought  and  the  more  effective  use  of  the  rain- 
fall. The  amount  and  distribution  of  the  moisture  is  adapted  not 
only  to  the  growth  of  grain  and  cultivated  crops,  but  is  such  as  to 
secure  exceptional  pasturage  and  in  the  great  majority  of  years  a good 
second  growth  of  clover. 

There  is  no  other  section  in  the  country  in  which  the  distribution 
of  rainfall  is  better  adapted  to  agriculture  than  in  northern  Wiscon- 
sin. There  is  less  rain  in  the  spring  when  the  ground  is  to  be  seeded 
for  crops  than  in  the  eastern  states  and  there  is  more  rain  when 
needed  by  the  growing  crops  in  the  summer  than  in  the  western  states. 

TEMPERATURE 

The  temperature  of  a country  more  completely  controls  the  crops 
which  can  be  grown  than  anything  else.  Each  crop  has  its  particular 
needs  in  regard  to  temperature.  The  temperature  of  northern  Wis- 
consin is  characterized  by  cold  winters  with  clear  dry  atmosphere, 
and  summers  of  moderately  cool  but  quite  uniform  temperature. 
This  climate  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  growing  of  small  grains 
and  of  grass  for  pasture  and  hay.  The  cool  temperatures  of  the  spring 
months  are  extremely  favorable  to  the  germination  and  stooling  of  the 
small  grains  and  the  cool  moderately  moist  atmosphere  of  the  remainder 
of  the  season  causes  them  to  fill  well  and  yield  headily  when  the  soil 
is  properly  tilled  and  its  fertility  maintained. 

The  temperature  conditions  are  also  very  favorable  to  root  crops. 
Sugar  beets  yield  a very  high  percentage  of  sugar  and  rutabagas  make 
exceptional  growth  during  the  fall  period.  The  quality  of  potatoes 
is  the  very  best.  The  climate  is  also  well  adapted  to  cabbage  and 
celery. 


CORN  IN  UPPER  WISCONSIN 

The  temperature  conditions  of  northern  Wisconsin  are  not  so  favor- 
able for  corn  as  for  small  grains.  Early  varieties  of  corn  require  about 
100  days  to  ripen.  The  line  having  an  average  of  130  days  without 
killing  frost,  running  thru  Polk,  southern  Chippewa  and  Lincoln  and 
central  Marinette  counties,  marks  the  northern  limit  of  the  section  in 
which  early  corn  will  be  uninjured  by  frost,  four  out  of  five  years.  North 
of  this  line  the  risk  of  injury  by  frost  becomes  greater,  but  during 
fully  half  the  seasons  corn  will  reach, a good  silage  state.  Local  con- 
ditions such  as  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  lay  of  the  land  have 
an  important  influence  on  possibility  of  maturing  this  crop.  In  the 
same  location  and  situation  corn  will  mature  in  from  ten  days  to  two 


8 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


weeks  less  time  on  sandy  soils  than  on  heavy  silt  loam  soils,  which 
amounts  to  the  same  thing  as  lengthening  the  season  free  from  frost 
by  that  number  of  days. 

The  hilltops  and  upper  slopes,  because  of  the  smaller  liability  of 
frosts  occurring  in  these  situations,  act  similarly  to  lengthen  the  grow- 
ing season  locally. 


FROSTS 

The  influence  of  local  conditions  on  the  occurance  of  light  summer 
frosts  must  be  considered.  Low  land  soil  which  is  wet  and  cold  is 
more  liable  to  frost  than  dry  land.  Peat  soils  which  are  loose  and  do 
not  let  the  heat  penetrate  the  body  of  the  soils,  lose  their  temperature 
more  rapidly  at  night  and  are  therefore  in  danger  of  frost  more  than 
earthy  soils.  The  tops  and  upper  slopes  of  hills  are  much  less  liable 
to  the  occurance  of  these  frosts  because  there  is  opportunity  for  the 
cold  air  to  drain  down  the  slope  and  away  from  the  crop.  Corn  and 
other  tender  crops  can,  therefore,  be  grown  on  upper  hillsides  and  hill 
tops  with  much  less  danger  than  on  lower  ground.  The  influence  of 
the  large  lakes  on  temperature  is  also  considerable.  The  cool  air  from 
Lake  Superior  in  particular  makes  that  section  less  well  adapted  to 
corn  than  the  country  fifteen  to  twenty-five  miles  away  from  the  lake. 
The  temperature  effect  of  the  lake  is  intensified  by  the  heavy  clay 
soils  of  that  section,  while  on  the  other  hand,  these  very  conditions 
make  that  section  especially  adapted  to  the  small  grains,  grasses  and 
many  of  the  hardier  vegetables. 

THE  GROWING  SEASON 

The  average  length  of  time  between  killing  frost  in  the  spring  and 
in  the  fall  is  shown  on  the  accompanying  map.  This  map  shows  the 
number  of  days  on  the  average  year  during  which  corn  or  other  tender 
crops  will  grow.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  there  would 
be  too  much  risk  taken  if  one  were  to  grow  varieties  of  corn  which 
would  require  the  number  of  days  indicated  on  the  map  to  ripen,  since 
that  would  mean  that  these  varieties  would  be  killed  on  an  average 
every  other  year.  If  we  assume  that  we  can  take  the  risk  of  a frost 
killing  corn  one  year  out  of  five,  then  the  length  of  growing  season 
would  be  about  thirty  days  less  than  indicated  on  the  map. 

Long  Season  For  Pasture  and  Most  Crops.  The  light  frosts  in  the 
spring  and  fall  which  are  sufficient  to  kill  corn  or  other  tender  crops 
do  not  interfere  seriously  with  the  growth  of  grass  for  pasturage  or 
hay  or  of  small  grains  or  hardier  root  crops  and  vegetables.  For  the 


CLIMATE  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


9 


growth  of  these  crops  the  season  is  of  course  much  longer  than  for 

corn. 

Good  pasturage  begins  in  northern  Wisconsin  about  the  middle  of 
May.  This  is  nearly  two  weeks  later  than  the  beginning  of  pasturage 


m southern  Wisconsin,  southern  Minnesota,  or  northern  Iowa.  But 
the  shortage  of  pasture  due  to  drought  in  northern  Wisconsin  is  so 
much  less  on  the  average  than  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  dur- 
ing the  early  fall  especially,  that  the  total  pasture  season  is  probably 
nearly  or  quite  equal  to  that  in  the  southern  section  and  certainly 


10 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


much  longer  than  that  in  the  prairie  sections  to  the  southwest.  The 
amount  of  feed  necessary  to  carry  the  stock  through  the  winter  and 
dry  periods  is  therefore  not  greater  in  northern  Wisconsin  than  in 
other  sections  of  the  state  and  adjoining  states,  which  have  already 
become  the  chief  dairy  sections  of  America.  Corn  for  silage  must 
to  some  extent  be  replaced  by  hardy  root  crops. 


KEEPING  UP  FERTILITY 


11 


CHAPTER  n. 

KEEPING  UP  FERTILITY 


Farmers  starting  on  new  land  should  make  an  effort  to  keep  up  and 
increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil  from  the  beginning  rather  than  to 
let  it  run  down  for  several  years  until  the  crop  yields  are  small  and 
more  expensive  methods  are  necessary  to  build  up  the  fertility  again. 
In  order  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil  it  is  necessary  to  keep  a 
supply  of  organic  or  vegetable  matter  in  it  which  by  its  decomposition 
will  furnish  growing  crops  with  nitrogen  and.  cause  chemical  changes 
in  the  soil  by  which  other  elements  become  available  to  growing  plants. 
This  organic  or  vegetable  matter  may  be  either  stable  manure  or  green 
manure  such  as  clover,  or  other  crops,  or  straw  and  stubble  left  from 
the  growing  of  grains.  Legumes  such  as  clover,  soybeans,  etc.,  are  the 
best  for  green  manuring  purposes  and  also  most  helpful  in  keeping 
up  the  nitrogen  supply  of  the  soil,  when  fed  to  stock,  because  of  the 
fact  that  they  are  higher  in  nitrogen  than  other  crops  and  secure 
this  element  from  the  air  so  that  growing  them  adds  to  the  quantity 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  on  the  farm,  whereas  the  growing  of  other 
crops  tends  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  nitrogen.  The  growing  of  leg- 
umes therefore  is  important  in  any  system  of  farming  unless  a large 
amount  of  expensive  fertilizers  containing  nitrogen  are  bought,  which 
under  northern  Wisconsin  conditions  is  unprofitable. 

Other  important  elements  of  plant  food  are  phosphorus  potassium 
and  calcium  or  lime.  Phosphorus  exists  in  very  small  amounts  in 
all  soils  and  is  used  by  every  growing  plant.  It  accumulates  largely 
in  the  seeds  of  plants  as  they  ripen  and  so  after  grain  is  sold  there  is 
considerable  loss  of  phosphorus  and  even  if  the  grain  is  fed  and  milk 
or  the  entire  animal  sold  the  phosphorus  is  taken  away  in  the  milk 
or  bones  of  the  animals.  While  there  is  enough  phosphorus  in  most 
soils  to  last  a good  many  years,  without  purchasing  a new  supply  in 
fertilizers,  still  yields  will  not  be  so  large  and  will  gradually  de- 
crease unless  new  supplies  of  phosphorus  are  secured.  There  are, 
however,  enormous  stores  of  phosphates  which  are  being  mined  and 
these  together  with  bones  of  animals  from  the  slaughter  houses  are 
available  for  keeping  up  and  increasing  the  phosphorus  content  of 


12 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


the  soil.  The  best  jdelds  of  the  best  grades  of  grain  and  other  crops 
can  only  be  secured  by  keeping  up  the  supply  of  this  element. 

Potassium  exists  in  large  amounts  in  all  earthy  soils  but  occurs 
in  small  amounts  in  such  soils  as  peat  and  muck  which  are  largely 
made  up  of  vegetable  matter.  The  potassium  in  clay  and  silt  o 
earthy  soils  becomes  available  through  the  action  of  decomposin 
organic  or  vegetable  matter  and  this  action  is  one  of  the  most  im 
portant  reasons  for  keeping  up  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil.  Some| 
crops  need  much  more  potassium  than  others.  Potatoes,  cabbage  an 
root  crops  use  large  amounts  and  it  is  frequently  desirable  to  ui 
potassium  fertilizer  to  increase  the  yields  of  these  crops.  Marsh 
soils  are  low  in  potassium  and  potash  fertilizers  should  be  used  o 
them. 

Calcium,  the  chief  element  in  lime,  is  needed  by  all  crops  though 
some  use  more  of  it  than  others.  Alfalfa,  clover,  peas  and  beets  are 
among  those  using  the  largest  amounts.  Lime  containing  calcium  is 
lost  by  leaching,  as  well  as  by  removal  by  crops  and  hence  best  yields 
especially  of  crops  using  considerable  amounts  of  lime  are  only  pos 
sible  over  a long  period  of  years  when  lime  is  returned  to  the  soil 
Limestone  rocks  which  need  only  to  be  crushed  and  ground  occui 
in  southern  and  western  Wisconsin  and  the  application  of  a ton  ol 
lime  to  the  acre  every  four  to  six  years  will  greatly  improve  the  fer 
tility  of  the  farm  at  a small  expense. 

Live  Stock  Raising  Compared  with  Crop  Selling.  It  is  quite  ofter 
stated  that  the  keeping  of  live  stock  is  necessary  in  order  to  keep  up 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  a farm.  This  is  not  true.  It  is  just  as  easy 
to  keep  up  the  fertility  by  using  green  manuring  crops  and  commercial 
fertilizers  as  by  using  stable  manure.  There  is,  however  a large  op-1 
pertunity  to  use  the  time  during  the  winter  in  the  care  of  stock  and! 
secure  some  profit  by  feeding  the  crops  grown  and  farmers  who  have! 
means  to  purchase  stock  and  who  can  feed  profitably  should  certainly! 
do  so.  A large  amount  of  excellent  pasturage  can  also  be  secured  onl 
new  land  in  the  process  of  clearing  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

It  is  in  fact  chiefly  because  land  can  be  used  in  pasture  in  this  con-ji 
dition  that  land  in  the  cut-over  sections  is  cheap  in  comparison  with! 
fully  developed  land  elsewhere. 


Note  the  small  cultivated  acreage,  the  stump  land  pasture  and  the  timber  in  the  background. 


■ — — 


KINDS  OF  SOIL 


13 


CHAPTER  III. 

KINDS  OF  SOIL 

There  are  a great  many  different  kinds  of  soil,  probably  a hundred 
different  kinds  could  be  distinguished  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin. 

On  this  map,  however,  we  have  grouped  these  into  ten  classes,  but 
most  of  these  classes  are  subdivided  into  two  or  three  phases,  to  take 
account  of  differences  in  the  lay  of  the  land,  or  topography,  and  other 
characteristics.  The  grouping  into  the  ten  classes  is  chiefly  made  on 
the  basis  of  the  fineness  of  grain  of  the  soil.  This  is  generally  called 
its  texture.  This  quality  of  the  soil  is  most  important  because  it  is 
the  chief  thing  which  determines  the  kinds  of  crops  to  which  the  soil 
is  adapted.  Sandy  soils,  for  instance,  will  grow  fair  crops  of  a few 
kinds,  such  as  rye,  mammoth  clover,  and  corn,  if  their  fertility  is 
kept  up,  but  they  will  not  grow  good  pasture  grasses  because  they  do 
not  hold  enough  moisture.  On  the  other  hand,  silt  loam  soils  or  heavy 
clay  soils  will  carry  excellent  pasture  grasses  and  are  well  adapted  to 
small  grains,  but  are  not  adapted  to  potatoes,  soy  beans,  and  some 
other  crops;  while  heavy  sandy  loam  soils  will  hold  enough  moisture 
to  grow  good  grass  and  small  grains,  but  are  also  light  enough  to  be 
well  adapted  to  potatoes,  corn,  clover,  and  other  crops  which  do  not 
grow  well  on  the  heaviest  soils. 

On  account  of  the  importance  of  the  fineness  of  grain,  or  texture 
of  the  soil,  this  is  made  the  chief  basis  of  classification.  The  particles 
or  grains  which  go  to  make  up  any  soil  can  be  separated  into  three 
grades  or  sizes, — first,  sands;  second,  silts;  and  third,  clay.  Sandy 
soils  have  large  amounts  of  sand  with  very  small  amounts  of  silt  and 
clay.  Light  sandy  loam  soils  have  somewhat  less  sand  and  more  silt 
and  clay  than  the  sands.  The  heavy  sandy  loams  have  less  sand  than 
the  light  sandy  loams  and  more  silt  and  clay.  Silt  loam  soils  have  very 
large  amounts  of  silt  with  a relatively  small  amount  of  sand  and  some 
clay ; while  in  clay  soils  there  is  a large  amount  of  clay,  some  silt,  and 
relatively  little  sand.  To  which  of  these  classes  a soil  belongs  is  de- 
termined by  a mechanical  analysis  in  the  laboratory. 

In  addition  to  the  texture  of  the  surface  soil,  it  is  necessary  to  take 
into  consideration  the  character  of  the  subsoil  because  this  influences 


14 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


the  drainage  of  the  soil.  Whether  there  is  lime  in  the  soil  or  not 
makes  a difference  which  is  also  shown  on  the  map. 

Taking  these  matters  into  consideration  with  the  texture  we  have 
the  soils  subdivided  into  the  sands,  fine  sandy  loams,  heavy  sandy 
loams,  silt  loams  with  well  drained  subsoil,  silt  loams  with  heavy  sub- 
soil, silt  loams  on  limestone,  and  heavy  red  clay.  Each  of  these  classes  I 
is  subdivided  into  two  or  three  phases  depending  on  the  lay  of  the  I 
land,  or  topography,  there  being  a level  phase  of  sandy  soil,  and  an  I 
undulating  to  rolling  phase,  and  so  on  with  the  other  classes. 

In  addition  to  these  classes,  the  map  shows  poorly  drained  soils  I 
subdivided  into  (1),  those  which  are  rather  sandy;  (2),  those  which  I 
are  heavier,  as  sandy  loams  and  silt  loams;  and  (3),  peat  and  muck.  I 
The  rough,  or  very  stony  land  has  two  groups;  (1),  those  which  are  I 
too  sandy  to  support  grass  for  pasture;  and  (2),  the  heavier  soils! 
which  would  be  well  adapted  to  pasture. 

HOW  THE  MAP  WAS  MADE 

The  men  who  made  the  soil  map  went  over  all  of  the  roads,  and 
where  the  roads  are  a good  way  apart  they  went  over  every  other 
section  line.  In  this  way  they  saw  a part  of  every  section,  but  they! 
did  not  see  every  quarter  section.  There  are,  therefore,  a great  many  1 
pieces  of  land,  some  as  large  as  half  a section  in  extent  which  may  not  I 
be  exactly  as  represented  on  the  map.  This  must  be  borne  in  mind  I 
in  using  the  map.  But  the  map  does  show  the  location  of  all  large!  1 
areas  of  the  different  kinds  of  soil ; so  that  it  is  comparatively  easy  I 
for  anyone  with  a map  in  hand  to  decide  where  he  should  go  to  look  I 
for  soils  of  the  kind  he  wants. 

In  mapping  the  soils  the  men  used  augers  welded  to  steel  rods  1 
so  that  they  could  bore  into  the  soil  and  subsoil  and  determine  its  H 
nature. 

It  is  impossible  to  show  the  degree  of  stoniness  on  the  map  as  that  I 
varies  within  very  short  distances.  On  some  patches  the  stones  are  i 
too  thick  to  make  clearing  practicable.  Some  of  these  patches  are  i 
as  large  as  40  acres  in  extent. 

It  is  therefore  very  important  for  anyone  in  examining  the  piece  I 
of  land  he  is  thinking  of  buying  to  go  over  it  carefully  to  see  just 
what  the  lay  of  the  land  is,  the  amount  of  stoniness,  and  the  thickness  t 
of  the  stumps. 

The  following  pages  describe  these  different  classes  of  soils,  and 
give  general  information  in  regard  to  the  other  matters  above  men- 
tioned. 


KINDS  OF  SOIL 


15 


RELATION  OF  SOIL  TO  LINE  OF  FARMING 

Each  different  kind  of  soil  is  adapted  to  some  crops 
and  some  lines  of  farming  better  than  to  others  and 
as  far  as  possible  the  crops  best  adapted  should  be 
grown.  It  is  only  when  working  with  Nature  that 
we  can  expect  the  best  results. 

One  looking  for  land  should  first  decide  the  kind  of 
farming  he  wants  to  engage  in.  If  he  decides  to  make 
stock  raising  the  chief  line,  whether  as  dairying  or  for 
beef  or  mutton,  he  should  select  land  which  will  best 
grow  the  crops  he  wishes  to  feed.  He  should  also  as  a 
rule,  at  least  in  the  northern  part  of  Wisconsin,  select 
land  which  will  give  good  pasture.  This  means  that  the 
land  should  be  not  lighter  than  heavy  sandy  loam. 
If  he  wishes  to  grow  wheat,  barley  or  oats  to  a con- 
siderable extent  for  sale,  he  will  find  silt  loam,  clay 
loams,  and  clay  the  best  soils  for  his  purpose.  If 
potatoes  is  to  be  the  chief  cash  crop  then  he  should 
select  a light  sandy  loam  or  a heavy  sandy  loam.  The 
heavy  sandy  loam  soil  is  adapted  to  the  largest  variety 
of  crops  and  lines  of  farming.  With  the  large  variety 
of  soils  in  Wisconsin,  good  locations  for  any  important 
line  of  farming  to  which  the  climate  is  adapted  can 
be  found.  These  relations  between  the  soil  and  crops 
and  lines  of  farming  are  fully  pointed  out  in  the 
description  of  each  class  of  soil  in  the  following  pages. 


1G 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


CHAPTER  IV. 
SANDS 


The  sand  soils  of  upper  Wisconsin  have  been  put  into  two  classes* 
i.  e.,  those  which  are  level  or  nearly  so,  and  those  which  range  from 
just  a little  rolling,  or  undulating,  to  rolling.  The  roughest  sand 
soils  which  are  better  suited  to  forestry  than  farming  are  classed  with 
ROUGH  AND  VERY  STONY  LAND  on  the  map. 

A large  part  of  the  sand  soils  shown  in  Burnett  and  Douglas 
counties  are  finer  than  the  average  of  the  Sands,  and  have 
therefore,  somewhat  higher  value  than  the  average  of  sands  in  other 
portions  of  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 

The  original  timber  on  the  sands  was  largely  Jack  and  Norway 
pine  with  a small  amount  of  White  pine.  The  growth  of  timber, 
however,  was  comparatively  light  and  since  practically  all  the  timber 
of  value  has  been  removed,  there  remains  only  a scattering  growth 
of  smaller  Jack  and  Norway  pine,  with  which  is  mixed  some  Black 
oak,  poplar,  birch  and  cherry. 

THE  VALUE  OF  SAND  SOILS 

Sand  soils  have  less  producing  power  than  heavier  soils,  first,  because 
of  the  fact  that  they  do  not  hold  moisture  as  well  and  so  are  somewhat 
more  subject  to  drought,  and  second,  because  they  contain  less  plant 
food  as  shown  by  chemical  analysis. 

The  fact  that  sandy  soils  hold  less  water  from  rains  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  work  them  immediately  after  it  stops  raining;  so  that  much 
time  can  be  used  in  cultivation  and  other  field  work  on  sandy  land 
which  cannot  be  so  used  on  clay  soils.  Moreover,  light  rainfalls  which 
are  not  sufficient  to  wet  heavy  soils  down  far  enough  to  reach  the 
roots  of  crops  do  penetrate  the  sandy  soils  far  enough  to  be  of  great 
help  to  growing  crops.  This  is  a decided  advantage  possessed  by 
sandy  soils.  Moreover,  this  same  tendency  to  dry  out  more  readily 
than  heavy  soils  permits  them  to  warm  up  much  more  quickly  in  the 
spring;  so  that  crops  can  often  be  planted  a good  many  days  earlier 
on  sandy  soils  than  on  heavy  soil.  This  is  especially  true  in  regard 
to  corn  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  and  it  often  happens  that 


SANDS 


17 


corn  is  planted  enough  earlier  on  sandy  soils  to  mature  before  frosts; 
when  on  heavy  this  would  be  impossible. 

While  these  soils  will  probably  never  have  the  selling  value  of 
heavier  land,  they  still  have  considerable  possibilities  for  agricultural 
use.  When  properly  managed,  fair  crops  of  clover,  rye,  soy  beans 
and  corn  can  be  grown  on  these  sandy  soils.  With  good  management 
the  yields  of  these  crops  on  sand  soils  can  readily  be  made  to  average 
two-thirds  the  yields  of  the  same  crops  on  heavy  soil,  and  considering 
the  small  capital  invested  and  the  lower  cost  in  operation,  fair  profits 
are  possible  on  these  soils.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  clover, 
soy  beans,  or  other  legume  crops  which  have  the  power  of  fixing 
nitrogen  from  the  air  must  be  grown  right  from  the  start.  If  rye, 
corn,  potatoes,  and  other  crops  are  grown  for  several  years  after 
breaking  without  legumes,  the  land  quickly  becomes  run  down  so 
that  much  more  expense  is  involved  in  building  it  up. 

These  soils  do  not  support  good  pasture  grasses;  so  that  corn  or 
other  fodder  must  be  used  in  the  summer  during  dry  periods.  Again, 
this  land  does  not  as  a rule  maintain  a sufficient  degree  of  fertility  to 
warrant  the  growing  of  potatoes  for  sale.  A system  of  farming  in- 
cluding a rotation  of  rye,  clover  and  corn,  and  the  keeping  of  as 
many  dairy  cows  or  other  stock  as  can  readily  be  fed,  is  the  best  gen- 
eral plan  for  farming  on  these  soils. 

Handling  and  Fertilizing  Sand  Soils.  Somewhat  different  practice 
in  regard  to  plowing  and  seeding  than  that  usually  used  on  heavy 
soils  is  called  for.  Seed  should  be  placed  more  deeply  on  sandy 
soils,  and  the  use  of  a roller,  especially  one  of  the  corrugated  type,  is 
very  beneficial  in  giving  a greater  degree  of  firmness  to  the  seed  bed. 
The  use  of  some  ground  limestone  to  neutralize  acidity  and  of  small 
amounts  of  commercial  fertilizer,  especially  those  containing  phos- 
phorus, will  help  greatly  to  build  up  the  producing  power  of  these 
soils. 

Two  Kinds  of  Sand  Soils.  While  the  level  sands  have  been  separ- 
ated on  the  map  from  those  which  are  undulating  to  rolling,  the 
difference  between  these,  as  far  as  their  value  and  use  in  farming  is 
concerned  is  not  great.  The  level  sand  soils  are  more  easily  farmed 
than  the  rolling  lands,  and  when  they  have  the  same  degree  of  fine- 
ness, will  retain  water  somewhat  better.  Occasionally,  two  or  three 
feet  below  the  surface  the  sand  becomes  much  coarser  or  is  even  a 
fine  gravel,  and  this,  of  course,  greatly  reduces  its  value.  One  should 
examine  the  subsoil  of  these  lands  to  determine  whether  this  coarse 
material  is  found  in  the  subsoil  or  not.  On  the  other  hand,  even  a 
thin  layer  of  silty  or  clayey  material  in  the  subsoil  helps  to  hold  the 
water.  These  areas  of  sandy  soils  occur  especially  in  the  valleys 
where  they  were  deposited  by  running  water. 


18 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


The  undulating  to  rolling  sand  soils  vary  greatly  in  roughness. 

Some  have  gentle  slopes  so  that  farm  machinery  can  be  used  about 
as  easily  as  on  the  level  sands,  but  some  areas  are  quite  rough  Where 
these  occur  in  large  tracts  they  are  shown  on  the  map  as  the  rough 
lands,  but  when  they  are  in  small  areas  of  forty  to  eighty  acres  along 
with  more  gently  rolling  or  level  sands,  they  have  not  been  separated. 
These  rolling  sandy  soils  vary  in  degree  of  fineness  more  than  do 
the  level  sands,  and  seldom  become  much  coarser  in  the  subsoil.  But 
they  are  sometimes  rather  stony  while  the  level  sands  are  practica  y 
free  from  stone. 


Part  “brushed”  stump  land  pasture,  part  cultivated,  a profitable  combination. 


LIGHT  SANDY  LOAMS 


19 


CHAPTER  V. 

LIGHT  SANDY  LOAMS 

These  soils,  while  still  quite  sandy,  are  finer  and  hold  moisture 
better  than  those  classified  as  sands.  They  also  have  somewhat  more 
fertility.  One  must  note  the  texture  or  degree  of  fineness  carefully 
to  appreciate  the  difference  in  these  soils,  because  relatively  small  dif- 
ferences in  degree  of  fineness  are  important. 

LEVEL  AND  UNDULATING  LIGHT  SANDY  LOAMS 

• 

While  the  map  shows  the  level  and  undulating  portions  of  the 
light  sandy  loams  separately  the  difference  between  these,  so  far  as 
their  value  and  use  in  farming  is  concerned,  is  not  great.  The 
level  phase  is  usually  quite  free  from  stones  and  is  apt  to  get  a 
little  coarser  in  the  subsoil  than  is  the  case  with  the  undulating  phase. 
The  latter,  in  some  sections,  is  more  or  less  stony.  On  account  of 
the  relatively  little  difference  between  the  level  and  undulating  phase 
they  will  be  discussed  together. 

Considerable  variations  in  the  texture  of  these  light  sandy  loams 
occur  within  short  distances.  Often  the  quality  of  the  soil  on  one 
forty-acre  tract  is  distinctly  better  than  that  on  the  adjoining  forty 
acres.  Some  variations  occur  in  the  general  character  of  these  soils 
in  different  parts  of  upper  Wisconsin.  In  the  Chippewa  River  valley 
in  Rusk  county,  the  soil  is  quite  variable,  being  more  sandy  near  the 
small  tributary  streams  and  heavier  farther  back.  In  the  southern 
half  of  Oconto  county  there  is  considerable  limestone  gravel  which 
improves  the  character  of  these  soils.  In  parts  of  Langlade,  Forest, 
Pierce,  and  Barron  counties,  these  soils  are  apt  to  be  more  stony  on 
the  more  hilly  portions. 

The  light  sandy  loams  originally  supported  somewhat  heavier 
timber  than  the  sands  described  on  the  preceding  pages  and  a 
larger  portion  of  it  consisted  of  Norway  and  White  pine.  There 
is  also  a small  amount  of  basswood,  hemlock,  oak  and  birch.  The 
second  growth  which  now  covers  most  of  this  land  consists  of  oak, 
poplar,  white  birch,  and  pine  from  ten  to  thirty  feet  in  height. 
The  supply  of  firewood  is,  therefore,  generally  sufficient  on  thia 


20 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


class  of  lands  to  meet  the  needs  of  settlers  for  some  time.  The  labor 
involved  in  clearing  is  moderate,  on  account  of  the  comparatively 
light  growth  of  timber  in  general,  but  is  of  course  somewhat  larger 
than  on  the  sands. 

VALUE  AND  USE  OF  LIGHT  SANDY  LOAMS 

These  soils  have  a distinctly  higher  value  than  sands.  The 
staple  crops  should  be  rye,  clover,  corn  and  soybeans.  These 
soils,  however,  will  grow  good  crops  of  potatoes  when  the  fertility 
is  maintained  and  man}^  other  special  crops  can  be  grown.  This  soil 
is  not  sufficiently  heavy  to  support  good  pasture  grass  and  other  forage 
should  be  grown  to  supplement  pasturage  in  the  summer. 

While  these  soils  are  not  especially  adapted  to  stock  raising  or 
dairying,  a moderate  amount  of  stock  can  be  kept  on  new  farms 
where  some  pasturage  is  available  in  land  not  -well  enough  cleared  to 
be  broken  or  cultivated. 

KEEPING  UP  FERTILITY 

Manure  is  of  great  assistance  in  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  when  heavy  crops,  such  as 
potatoes  and  root  crops,  are  sold  from  the  farm,  the  use  of  some 
fertilizer  in  addition  to  stable  manure  is  desirable. 

Most  of  these  soils,  in  common  with  soils  of  the  northern  half  of 
the  state  generally,  are  somewhat  acid  and  crops  needing  large 
amounts  of  lime,  such  as  alfalfa,  soybeans,  and  mammoth  clover 
will  require  its  use  in  order  to  secure  good  yields.  Clover  usually 
does  well  on  these  lands  for  several  years  without  liming,  but  will 
in  all  probability  be  benefited  by  the  use  of  moderate  amounts  of 
lime  after  a few  years  of  cr oping.  Plowing  under  a second 

crop  of  clover,  or  still  better,  the  growing  of  a crop  of  soybeans  or 
other  legumes  to  be  plowed  under  entirely  as  a green  manuring 
crop  in  addition  to  the  growing  of  clover  for  hay,  is  very  helpful 
in  building  up  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil.  This  practice  has  been 
found  to  pay  for  itself  in  the  increased  yields  of  potatoes  and  other 
crops.  Moderate  amounts  of  phosphate  fertilizers  will  prove  profitable, 
although  they  are  not  necessary  to  secure  fair  yields  for  the  first  few 


HEAVY  SANDY  LOAMS 


21 


CHAPTER  VI. 
HEAVY  SANDY  LOAMS 


The  most  common  class  of  soils  through  upper  Wisconsin  is 
the  heavy  sandy  loams.  These  soils  are  among  the  most  valuable 
farm  lands  in  this  part  of  the  state.  They  are  intermediate  in  tex- 
ture being  sufficiently  heavy  to  carry  good  pasture  grass,  and  yet  have 
a sufficient  amount  of  sand  and  gravel  in  their  composition  to  give 
them  good  under  drainage ; so  that  they  warm  up  more  readily  in 
the  spring  than  do  heavier  soils.  Crops  growing  on  them  have  a dis- 
tinctly longer  growing  season  than  on  heavier  soils  which  is  of  great 
importance  in  the  latitude  having  a relatively  short  growing  season. 
Their  adaptation  to  a wide  range  of  crops  still  further  increases 
their  value.  Their  texture  also  gives  them  a good  mellow  tilth  and 
makes  them  easy  to  work;  so  that  they  are  adapted  to  special  crops 
such  as  potatoes,  and  root  crops  generally,  as  well  as  to  the  staple 
crops  including  clover,  timothy  and  small  grains. 

The  original  timber  on  these  soils  consisted  of  a good  growth  of 
mixed  pine  and  hardwood.  The  pine  was  chiefly  White  with  some 
Norway  and  a small  amount  of  Jack  pine.  In  some  sections  there 
was  a heavy  growth  of  hemlock  on  these  soils.  The  hardwood  in- 
cluded a mixture  of  birch,  maple,  basswood,  and  a little  oak.  Since 
most  of  the  pine  on  this  soil  was  merchantable  timber,  it  has  been 
cut,  except  in  limited  localities,  and  only  a little  second  growth  pine 
and  the  hardwood  remains.  The  hardwood,  however,  is  sufficient  to 
supply  an  abundance  of  firewood  in  practically  all  sections  and  there 
is  often  considerable  cordwood  available. 

The  fairly  heavy  growth  of  timber  on  this  land  means,  of  course, 
that  the  clearing  is  moderately  heavy  compared  with  lighter  soils, 
although  small  tracts  are  frequently  found  which  have  been  burned 
over  to  such  an  extent  that  the  labor  of  clearing  is  considerably  re- 
duced. 

Two  groups  of  heavy  sandy  loams  are  shown  on  the  map.  The 
level,  or  nearly  level  phase  occurs  only  in  limited  areas,  but  the  un- 
dulating group,  which  is  by  all  means  most  common,  is  found  in 
large  widely  distributed  bodies. 


09 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


UNDULATING  HEAVY  SANDY  LOAMS 

Soils  of  this  class  are,  for  the  most  part,  undulating  to  rolling  in 
topography.  In  some  sections  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state,  the  land  may  even  be  called  rough  and  hilly,  but  for  the  most 
part  it  is  not  so  rough  that  it  would  prevent  good  agriculture  de- 
velopment. Hilly  land,  too  rough  for  cultivation,  should  be  used  as 
pasture  and  farmed  with  other  land.  The  hilly  land  should  be  cheaper. 

Stoniness  varies  greatly  over  the  areas  occupied  by  these  soils.  In 
some  sections  large  cobbles  and  bowlders  are  so  numerous  as  to  make 
clearing  very  expensive,  but  this  is  true  only  on  a small  fraction  of 
the  land  and  in  most  cases  extreme  stoniness  occurs  only  over  patches 
of  a comparatively  few  acres;  so  that  by  using  these  portions  for 
pasture,  the  land  as  a whole  may  be  developed. 

There  is  quite  a little  variation  in  the  subsoil  of  this  class  of  soil. 
Near  Superior  in  Iron  county,  there  is  a tract  of  about  12  sq.  miles, 
the  soil  of  which  is  underlaid  by  clay  at  from  24  inches  to  26  inches. 
This  gives  the  soil  of  this  tract  a -considerably  heavier  character  in 
general  and  less  thorough  underdrainage  than  the  rest  of  the  undulat- 
ing sandy  loams. 

In  central  Ashland  County  there  are  about  50  sq.  miles  of  this  soil 
which  is  very  stony.  In  the  so-called  iron  ranges,  hard  granite  rock 
underlies  the  rougher  and  more  hilly  tracts.  In  Ashland  county 
the  Penokee  iron  and  copper  ranges  are  accompanied  by  a belt  of 
hilly  and  stony  land,  which  is  about  one  mile  wide.  Other  tracts  of 
stony  land  occur  in  certain  parts  of  Burnett,  Washburn,  Marinette, 
Shawano,  and  Sawyer  counties  and  the  stoniness  varies  within  very  I 
short  distances  so  that  it  cannot  be  shown  on  the  map.  Many  of  the !: 
most  stony  of  these  tracts  can  be  used  only  for  pasture  and  wood  h 
lots  but  when  the  farm  includes  a sufficient  amount  of  good  land  to 
raise  crops  for  feed,  good  results  can  be  secured. 

A tract  of  about  50  sq.  miles  in  Price  and  Oneida  counties  and  i 
one  of  about  25  sq.  miles  in  Burnett  county  have  a heavier  subsoil,! 
which  is  reached  at  a depth  of  from  18  inches  to  36  inches.  A large 
tract  of  about  100  sq.  miles  between  Webster  and  Grantsburg  has  a 
heavier  subsoil  which  generally  comes  to  within  8 inches  to  24  inches  j 
of  the  surface  and  gives  the  soil  rather  poor  drainage  in  those  tracts): 
which  are  level.  After  some  attention  has  been  given  to  the  drainage 
of  these  tracts,  this  soil  will  be  greatly  improved  in  character  and  will } j 
be  better  adapted  to  pasture  and  to  small  grains  than  the  soils  of  this' 
type  generally  are,  while  the  fairly  light  character  of  the  surface  soil 
makes  them  still  well  adapted  to  potatoes  and  other  special  crops  which 
do  best  on  soils  of  a medium  texture.  In  Chippewa,  Eau  Claire,  and 
D.unn  counties,  this  class  of  soil  is  relatively  free  from  stones  and  of 


HEAVY  SANDY  LOAMS 


23 


excellent  character,  but  somewhat  more  hilly  than  in  other  regions. 
Here  practically  all  of  it  has  already  been  developed  into  farms. 

The  rolling  surface  of  these  soils  gives  them  better  air  drainage 
than  more  level  land  has,  and  corn,  potatoes,  and  other  crops  easily  in- 
jured by  frost  can  be  grown  on  the  side  hills  successfully  in  even  the 
northern  part  of  the  state,  although  on  flat  land  in  the  same  section, 
their  growth  may  be  attempted  with  much  greater  risk.  The  loamy 
texture  of  the  soils  further  tends  to  make  them  warm  and  so  adapted 
to  tender  crops. 


LEVEL  HEAVY  SANDY  LOAMS 

• 

As  shown  on  the  map,  the  level  heavy  sandy  loams  occur  over  small 
areas  in  different  counties.  Most  of  the  land  of  this  type  was  formed 
by  the  filling  in  of  shallow  lakes  and  streams.  These  soils  are  usually 
quite  free  from  stone,  have  a level  or  gently  undulating  surface,  and 
the  subsoil  is  usually  lighter  or  sandier  than  the  surface  soil. 

Their  level  surface  and  comparative  freeness  from  stones  gives 
these  soils  a higher  value  for  general  farming.  Their  lighter  subsoils, 
for  the  most  part,  give  them  good  underdrainage,  though  there  are 
some  local  areas  which  need  some  attention  to  secure  good  surface 
drainage.  These  soils  are  well  adapted  to  grass,  hay,  or  pasturage, 
and  to  the  small  grains  and  are  especially  well  adapted  to  potatoes, 
except  as  an  occasional  severe  summer  frost  interferes. 


CALCAREOUS  HEAVY  SANDY  LOAMS 


A belt  of  soils  having  the  texture  of  heavy  sandy  loam  occurs  in 
a strip  west  of  Green  Bay  in  Marinette,' Oconto  and  Shawano  counties. 
This  soil  is  similar  to  the  heavy  sandy  loams  described  above,  except 
that  it  contains  a good  deal  of  ground  limestone  and  limestone  pebbles, 
especially  in  the  subsoil,  having  been  formed  by  glacial  ice  passing 
over  a country  of  limestone  rocks.  The  presence  of  this  limestone  in 
the  subsoil  lessens  the  tendency  of  the  soil  to  become  acid  and  gives 
it  an  added  value.  This  soil  is  one  of  the  best  types  in  the  state.  It 
is  adapted  to  practically  all  the  crops  which  grow  in  this  climate — 
corn,  root  crops,  small  grains,  grasses  and  legumes — and  has  the 
advantages  of  heavy  sandy  loams  pointed  out  in  the  description  on 
page  21.  The  presence  of  the  limestone  makes  it  especially 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  alfalfa,  peas,  and  other  crops  needing 

I large  amounts  of  lime.  Orchard  crops,  particularly  apples,  also 
do  unusually  well. 

Most  of  the  surface  is  undulating  to  rolling  with  long  gentle  slopes 


24 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


so  that  farm  machinery  can  be  used  on  practically  all  of  it,  though 
there  are  a few  small  areas  where  the  surface  is  somewhat  choppy. 
The  underdrainage  is  good  except  on  a few  tracts  which  are  chiefly 
confined  to  Green  Valley  Township  in  Shawano  county  and  to  small 
scattered  areas  in  Oconto  county,  chiefly  in  Morgan,  Oconto  Falls, 
Gillett,  and  Stiles  Townships.  These  tracts  will  need  dranage  for 
their  improvement. 

In  the  western  part  of  Polk  and  St.  Croix  counties  is  a similar  belt 
of  this  soil  with  limestone  gravelly  subsoil.  The  majority  of  this  area 
has  a rolling  to  hilly  surface  but  includes  many  nearly  level  areas. 
The  surface  soil  is  more  sandy  in  portions  than  in  others.  Large  areas 
of  the  hilly  sandy  loam  occur  in  the  Town  of  Somerset,  St.  Croix 
county,  and  around  Dresser  Junction  in  Polk  county.  Stones  and 
boulders  are  usually  plentiful  on  the  surface  and  stone  piles  and 
stone  fences  are  common.  Areas  of  considerable  size  are  practically 
stone  free. 


SILT  LOAMS  WITH  WELL-DRAINED  SUBSOIL 


25 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Silt  Loams  With  Well-Drained  Subsoils 

• 

The  silt  loam  soils  with  well-drained  subsoil  are  next  in  abundance 
to  the  heavy  sandy  loam  soils  in  upper  Wisconsin.  These  silt  loam 
soils  are  quite  generally  called  clay  loam  but  it  is  important  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  clay  loam  soils  which  are  considerably  heavier.  A 
soil  of  silt  loam  texture  has  high  water  holding  capacity  and  is  there- 
fore, well  adapted  to  grass  and  pasturage,  and  to  small  grains,  but  it 
is  not  too  heavy  to  work  well  when  sufficiently  well  drained.;  so  that  it 
is  also  suited  to  crops  needing  cultivation. 

ROLLING  SILT  LOAM 

The  larger  portion  of  these  silt  loam  soils  in  upper  Wisconsin  are 
undulating  to  rolling  in  topography.  They  occur  in  large  tracts  in 
Florence,  Forest,  Langlade,  and  Marathon  counties  in  the  eastern 
part  of  upper  Wisconsin,  and  in  Sawyer,  Rusk  and  Polk  counties  in 
the  western  part.  These  soils  were  formed  by  glaciation  chiefly 
from  granitic  rocks  and  so  bowlders  and  cobbles  are  quite  generally 
distributed  through  them.  Stoniness  varies  greatly  so  that  tracts 
of  moderate  size  are  occasionally  found  which  are  too  stony  to  be 
readily  cleared,  but  for  the  most  part,  stones  do  not  form  a serious 
obstacle.  The  rolling  surface  gives  good  surface  drainage  on  practically 
all  of  this  land,  but  some  small  tracts  where  the  subsoil  is  too  heavy  to 
permit  of  good  underdrainage  would  be  benefited  by  tile  drainage. 

The  original  timber  growth  on  this  class  of  soil  consisted  for  the 
most  part  of  hardwood,  especially  maple  and  birch  with  some  basswood 
and  oak  and  of  soft  wood,  especially  large  White  pine  and  hemlock. 
In  Chippewa,  Barron,  Eau  Claire  and  Dunn  counties  the  timber  is 
largely  oak  with  some  maple  and  poplar.  In  some  areas  White  pine 
greatly  predominated  over  the  hardwood  and  the  removal  of  the  pine 
stumps,  of  course,  adds  considerably  to  the  cost  of  clearing  the  land. 
On  practically  all  new  land  there  is  a sufficient  amount  of  small  timber 
left  to  furnish  stovewood  and  frequently  considerable  amounts  of 
cordwood,  and  bolts  of  paper  wood  can  be  cut  which  in  part  meets 


26 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


the  expense  of  clearing.  Rough  lumber  for  building  purposes  can 
also  usually  be  secured. 

VALUE  AND  USE  OF  ROLLING  SILT  LOAM 

These  soils  are  especially  adapted  to  grass,  both  for  pasture  and  hay 
and  to  clover,  small  grains,  and  root  crops.  Dairying  and  stock 
raising  are,  therefore,  the  chief  lines  of  farming  to  which  this  soil 
is  adapted  with  the  raising  of  small  grain  as  a side  line.  While  good 
yields  of  potatoes  can  be  grown,  the  heaviness  of  the  soil  makes  it 
somewhat  difficult  to  harvest  them  properly  especially  during  wet 
falls.  Corn  can  be  grown  readily,  especially  on  the  higher  slopes 
where  the  air  and  water  drainage  are  good,  while  on  the  lower  slopes 
or  more  level  portions  the  heaviness  of  the  soil  interferes  somewhat 
with  the  growth  of  this  crop,  which  requires  a quick  and  warm  soil 
in  this  section. 

The  tracts  of  this  class  of  land  in  different  sections  of  the  northern 
part  of  the  state  differ  somewhat  one  from  another.  In  the  south- 
eastern and  northern  portions  of  Ashland  county  the  rolling  phase 
of  this  soil  is  more  hilly  and  rough  than  the  average  and  there  is 
more  stoniness  and  the  subsoil  is  more  gravelly.  But  with  the  exception 
of  small  tracts  where  bowlders  are  too  numerous  all  the  land  can  be 
farmed. 

The  map  shows  considerable  areas  of  this  silt  loam  soil  with  well 
drained  subsoil  in  northeastern  Chippewa,  western  Rusk,  northwestern 
Barron,  and  over  a large  part  of  Polk  county.  This  soil  is,  for  the 
most  part,  of  excellent  texture  and  high  agricultural  value.  The 
survey  of  this  section  was  made  a few  years  before  the  remainder 
of  the  state  and  in  somewhat  less  detail  so  that  some  tracts  are  included 
with  this  type  of  soil  which  really  belong  to  others,  but  they  are  of 
relatively  small  extent.  Most  of  this  section  is  already  fairly  well 
developed. 

In  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  state,  especially  Forest,  northern 
Shawano  and  Oconto  counties,  the  land  of  this  class  is  more  rolling 
and  numerous  long  high  hills  underlaid  by  granite  rock  occur.  The 
soils  of  most  of  these  hillsides  is  excellent,  though  occasionally  patches 
are  found  which  are  so  stony  as  to  make  clearing  expensive,  but 
these  long  slopes  give  good  air  and  water  drainage  and  there  is  less 
danger  from  frost  than  on  the  lower  land.  Some  tracts  are  more 
stony  than  others,  among  which  might  be  mentioned  an  area  of  about 
ten  square  miles  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  Oconto  county  and 
one  of  about  the  same  extent  southeast  of  Marathon  in  Marathon 
county. 


SILT  LOAMS  WITH  WELL-DRAINED  SUBSOIL 


27 


LEVEL  SILT  LOAM 

Tracts  of  level  or  very  gently  undulating  silt  loam  soils  occur  in  a 
few  sections  as  shown  on  the  map.  The  largest  areas  of  this  kind 
are  in  the  vicinity  of  Antigo  in  Langlade  county  and  Milltown  in 
Polk  county.  These  tracts  have  a level  surface  and  are  of  alluvial 
origin,  having  been  formed  from  the  settling  of  sediment  in  shallow 
lakes  at  the  edge  of  the  ice  during  the  glacial  period,  and  very  com- 
monly have  some  sand  and  even  gravel  in  the  deeper  subsoil.  They 
are  practically  free  from  stone  of  any  size  on  the  surface.  The  level 
character  of  these  tracts  and  freedom  from  stones  gives  them  con- 
siderable advantage  in  the  readiness  with  which  farm  machinery  can 
be  used  and  so  they  have  somewhat  higher  value,  except  where  the 
unusdal  number  of  large  pine  stumps  make  clearing  expensive.  For 
the  most  part,  the  under  drainage  of  these  soils  is  good  on  account 
of  the  sand  or  gravel  in  the  subsoil,  but  it  is  often  necessary  to  provide 
some  small  surface  ditches  to  remove  surface  water  quickly  in  the 
spring. 

These  soils  are  especially  adapted  to  grass  and  hay  and  to  small 
grains.  Corn  is  less  successful  because  of  their  tendency  to  be  a little 
colder  and  more  backward  in  the  spring  than  higher  land.  Root 
crops  do  exceptionally  well. 

LEVEL  PRAIRIE  SILT  LOAM 

Some  tracts  of  level  silt  loams  which  occur  in  the  western  portion 
of  the  state,  are  quite  dark  or  nearly  black  from  the  large  amount  of 
humus.  These  tracts  were  originally  prairie  soils.  They  are  very 
fertile  and  adapted  to  the  growing  of  most  staple  crops.  Soils  of 
this  description  are  already  very  extensively  developed  and  improved 
and  so  do  not  call  for  a further  description  here. 


28 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


CHAPTER  VIE. 

SILT  LOAMS  WITH  HEAVY  SUBSOIL 

One  of  the  most  important  and  uniform  types  of  soil  in  northern 
Wisconsin  is  the  silt  loam  with  heavy  subsoil.  This  covers  an  ex- 
tensive area  in  Wood,  Clark,  Marathon,  Taylor,  Lincoln,  Rusk  and 
Price  counties.  This  soil  is  often  spoken  of  as  a clay  loam,  but  should 
really  be  called  a silt  loam,  since  it  usually  contains  from  fifty  to 
sixty-five  per  cent  of  silt.  The  soil  is  relatively  free  from  stoniness. 
Two  phases  or  kinds  of  this  soil  are  shown  on  the  map,  the  rolling, 
and  the  level.  Both  phases  are  generally  fertile  and  are  being 
developed  into  excellent  agricultural  land.  The  fine  texture  of  the 
soil  makes  it  especially  adapted  to  small  grains  and  to  grass,  both  for 
pasture  and  hay.  The  soil  is  not  high  in  its  content  of  vegetable  matter 
and  means  of  increasing  the  vegetable  matter  should  be  used.  This 
soil  is  also  acid  or  sour  and  crops  requiring  considerable  lime  such  as  al- 
falfa, clover,  sugar  beets,  etc.,  will  be  greatly  benefited  by  the  applica- 
tion of  lime.  While  clover  succeeds  very  well  on  comparatively  new 
ground,  it  is  probable  that  the  need  of  lime,  will  become  more  ap- 
parent as  time  goes  on. 

The  original  timber  on  this  land  was  mixed  hard  and  soft  wood. 
In  some  sections  the  hardwood  which  included  maple,  basswood,  birch 
and  some  oak  predominated,  while  on  others  White  pine  stood  very 
thick  and  constituted  the  chief  timber.  On  such  tracts  clearing  of 
the  large  White  pine  stumps  makes  the  expense  of  improving  the  land 
rather  high.  On  more  level  portions  in  addition  to  White  pine,  there 
is  considerable  hemlock,  balsam,  ash  and  elm. 

ROLLING  SILT  LOAM 

The  portion  of  this  silt  loam  mapped  as  the  rolling  phase  consists 
largely  of  rolling  hills  of  moderate  height  having  smooth  uniform 
slopes  practically  all  of  which  can  be  readily  farmed.  In  fact,  the 
slopes  are  just  sufficient  to  give  good  surface  drainage,  and  to  give 
good  air  drainage  from  the  higher  portions.  Rolling  silt  loam  is  there- 
fore less  subject  to  frost  and  has  good  drainage ; so  that  the  earliest 
varieties  of  corn  usually  mature  and  practically  always  reach  a good 
silage  stage  before  fall  frosts. 


FIG.  5.— A HIGHLY  DEVELOPED  FARM  IN  NORTHERN  WISCONSIN 


YffciJBRAff 
OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


SILT  LOAMS  WITH  HEAVY  SUBSOIL 


29 


LEVEL  SILT  LOAM  WITH  TIGHT  SUBSOIL 

This  silt  loam  occurs  extensively  in  eastern  Rusk  and  southern 
Price  counties.  This  is  a fertile  soil,  especially  adapted  to  the  small 
grains  and  grass  for  hay  and  pasture.  The  level  character  of  the 
soil  itself  causes  it  to  be  rather  poorly  drained  during  wet  seasons. 
Surface  drains  in  the  form  of  shallow  ditches  connected  with  dead 
furrows  should  be  used  to  remove  surface  water  as  much  as  possible. 
Tile  drainage  may  be  profitable  if  cultivated  crops  are  to  be  grown, 
but  tile  are  not  usually  necessary  when  land  is  largely  used  for 
grass  and  hay  or  even  small  gra'ip.  The  somewhat  unsatisfactory 
drainage  of  this  land  makes  it  less  well  adapted  to  corn,  potatoes 
and  other  crops  sensitive  to  frost  or  requiring  cultivation. 

Over  a portion  of  this  type  of  soil  the  underlying  rock  is  sand- 
stone rather  than  granite.  This  applies  especially  to  something 
over  twenty  square  miles  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  Clark  county 
and  an  area  about  five  miles  southeast  of  Greenwood.  The  presence 
of  this  sandstone  which  gives  rise  to  some  sandiness  in  the  sub-soil 
also  improves  drainage  conditions  considerably. 

Where  the  level  phase  of  this  silt  loam  soil  with  tight  sub-soil 
occurs  in  large  tracts,  the  lack  of  drainage  is  more  serious  and  those 
purchasing  it  should  include  in  the  estimates  of  cost  of  developement 
the  digging  of  such  ditches  as  may  be  necessary  to  remove  surface 
water  and  probably  for  its  fullest  agricultural  development,  the  ex- 
pense of  tiling  will  be  involved.  Some  tracts  of  this  land  are  of  a 
marshy  character,  forming  small  grass  meadows  along  streams,  but  in 
most  cases  the  muck  or  peat  of  this  soil  is  not  deep  and  the  vegetable 
matter  it  contains  will  improve  the  fertility  of  the  soil  after  drainage. 

By  the  use  of  systems  of  farming  to  which  it  is  adapted  a large 
part  of  this  type  of  land  will  undoubtedly  develop  into  valuable 
farms.  When  only  portions  of  farms  consist  of  this  level  phase  and 
the  remainder  is  higher  or  rolling,  the  lower  portions  can  be  used  as 
pasture  and  hay  land,  while  the  upper  portions  are  used  for  corn  and 
other  cultivated  crops  in  such  a way  that  the  farm  as  a whole  will  be 
highly  developed. 


30 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SILT  LOAMS  ON  LIMESTONE 


In  the  southwestern  part  of  upper  Wisconsin,  including  St.  Croix, 
Pierce,  Dunn,  Eau  Claire,  and  Chippewa  counties,  there  are  consider- 
ably areas  of  silt  loam  soil  underlaid  by  limestone  rocks  from  which 
the  soils  were  largely  derived  or  formed.  Part  of  this  section  was 
covered  by  the  ice  of  glacial  times  and  this  had  the  effect  of  grinding 
up  some  of  the  limestone  rock  and  mixing  it  with  the  surface  soil 
originally  there  and  also  of  filling  up  the  valleys  and  rounding  off 
the  hills;  so  that  the  surface  is  now  gently  undulating  to  rolling. 
Of  this  area  which  was  covered  by  the  ice,  a portion  has  since  been 
largely  prairie  with  only  sparse  forest  growth  while  another  portion 
was  quite  heavily  timbered.  The  prairie  portion  has  somewhat  darker 
soils  coming  from  the  vegetable  matter  of  the  fine  roots  of  grasses 
while  in  the  timbered  portions  the  soils  are  lighter  in  color.  This 
difference  in  organic  matter,  however,  is  not  large.  The  other  part 
of  this  limestone  region  was  not  covered  by  the  ice  of  glacial  times. 
This  part  makes  up  the  unglacial  silt  loam  soils  on  limestone.  It 
has  the  deep  vallej^s  and  steep  slopes  produced  by  long  periods  of 
stream  erosion,  and  the  surface  soil  has  been  constantly  leached  of 
its  lime;  so  that  it  now  contains  much  less  lime  than  the  soil  over 
which  the  ice  passed.  There  are,  therefore,  three  sub-divisions  of 
this  area  of  soils  underlaid  by  limestone  rocks:  (1),  Prairie  glaciated 
group;  (2),  Timbered  glaciated  group;  and  (3),  Unglaciated  group. 

ROLLING  PRAIRIE  SILT  LOAM  ON  LIMESTONE 

This  soil  covers  about  200  sq.  miles  in  western  St.  Croix  county. 
This  region  is  partly  quite  level,  but  portions  of  it  are  gently  un- 
dulating with  long  gentle  slopes.  Some  groves  of  trees  chiefly  of 
oak,  maple,  basswood  and  other  hardwoods,  with  a few  pine,  were 
scattered  over  this  section,  but  for  the  most  part,  it  was  a prairie 
region  when  first  settled. 

Value  and  Uses.  This  region  is  one  of  a very  high  degree  of  fer- 
tility, adapted  to  grain  and  stock  raising  and  is  already  fully 
developed.  Prices  of  land  are  correspondingly  high.  The  amount 


SILT  LOAMS  ON  LIMESTONE 


31 


of  organic  matter  in  these  soils  is  not  so  large  as  in  the  typical  prairie 
sections  of  Illinois  and  Iowa,  but  it  is  enough  to  give  the  soil  a dis- 
tinct character.  The  soil  is  a good  silt  loam  heavy  enough  to  grow 
the  best  pasture  grass,  and  to  be  well  adapted  to  small  grains;  while 
its  location  in  the  state,  and  its  good  supply  of  organic  matter  makes 
it  well  adapted  to  corn. 

Improving  and  Fertilizing.  Some  tracts  of  this  land  can  be  im- 
proved by  drainage.  The  subsoil  of  some  portions  is  rather  retentive 
of  moisture,  and  for  the  fullest  development,  a limited  amount  of 
tiling  would  be  helpful.  While  the  soil  of  this  section  was  at  first 
very  fertile,  some  of  it  has  been  cropped  a good  many  years  to  small 
grain  and  hay,  much  of  which  has  been  sold.  This  has  had  the  effect 
of  reducing  the  available  phosphorus  so  that  the  use  of  phosphate 
fertilizers  in  connection  with  stable  manure  will  greatly  increase 
yields  of  crops.  The  cultivation  of  the  land  for  many  years  has  also 
resulted  in  the  leaching  out  of  a good  deal  of  the  lime  in  patches 
over  this  section  and  an  application  of  ground  limestone  or  other  forms 
of  lime  will  also  be  helpful,  especially  for  crops  such  as  alfalfa,  peas, 
beets,  etc.,  which  draw  heavily  on  the  lime  of  the  soil. 

GLACIATED  SILT  LOAMS  ON  LIMESTONE 

These  soils  occupy  a large  tract  of  land  in  eastern  St.  Croix  and 
northern  Pierce  county.  This  section  'was  passed  over  by  the  ice 
during  glacial  times,  after  which  it  was  quite  heavily  timbered.  It 
has  a gently  undulating  surface,  and  rather  brownish  gray  colored 
soils  of  a fairly  heavy  silt  loam  texture. 

Value  and  Uses.  These  lands  are  very  fertile  and  adapted  to  a 
wide  range  of  corps  including  small  grains,  grasses  for  hay  and 
pasture  and  corn.  It  is  already  fully  developed  and  rapidly  becoming 
one  of  the  richest  sections  of  the  state.  The  soil  of  this  section  has 
a good  supply  of  lime,  except  in  patches  here  and  there  where  leach- 
ing during  a number  of  years  of  cultivation  has  reduced  it.  On  these 
tracts,  lime  would  be  beneficial  for  crops  requiring  a good  deal  of 
this  substance  and  the  use  of  phosphate  fertilizers  with  stable  manure 
will  also  be  helpful. 

Need  for  Tiling  and  Liming.  While  there  is  almost  no  marsh  land 
in  this  region,  there  are  a good  many  sections  where  the  land  is  nearly 
level  and  the  subsoil  rather  heavy  so  that  underdrainage  is  not 
rapid  enough  during  wet  seasons.  For  these  sections  tiling  would 
be  a very  great  improvement.  With  the  improvements  that  could  be 
affected  by  the  use  of  lime,  phosphate,  and  tile  drainage,  the  soil  of 
this  region,  although  already  very  productive,  can  be  made  still  more 
productive. 


32 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


UNGLACIATED  SILT  LOAMS  ON  LIMESTONE 

There  are  several  areas  of  soils  derived  from  limestone  in  Pierce, 
Dunn,  Eau  Claire  and  Chippewa  counties.  These  regions  have  deep 
valleys  with  rather  steep  slopes,  giving  them  a rather  rough  surface, 
although  many  tracts  of  upland  between  the  streams  are  moderately 
level  or  undulating. 

Value  and  Uses.  The  soil  of  this  regeion  while  of  fairly  heavy  tex- 
ture and  originally  of  good  degree  of  fertility,  is  less  well  supplied 
with  lime  and  the  hillsides  are  more  subject  to  washing  and  leaching 
by  which  their  fertility  is  lessened.  These  factors  should  be  taken 
into  account  in  choosing  lines  of  farming  and  in  selecting  means  for 
improvement.  The  texture  of  the  soil  is  well  adapted  to  grass  both 
for  pasture  and  hay,  and  keeping  the  steeper  slopes  under  pasture 
or  meadow  greatly  reduces  the  surface  wash.  These  regions  are, 
therefore,  especially  suited,  to  stock  raising  in  which  pasturage  is 
extensively  used,  while  small  grain  and  corn  for  winter  feed  are 
grown  on  the  more  level  portions  of  the  land. 

Fertilizing  and  Improving.  Since  the  soil  of  these  sections  was 
formed  by  the  weathering  of  the  limestone  rocks  during  very  long 
periods  of  time,  the  lime  has  been  largely  removed  by  leaching  and 
a good  deal  of  the  soil  is  more  or  less  sour  or  acid.  The  highest  fer- 
tility can  therefore  only  be  reached  on  these  lands  through  the  appli- 
cation of  ground  limestone,  or  other  forms  of  lime,  especially  for 
crops  requiring  a good  deal  of  these  substances,  such  as  alfalfa, 
clover,  peas,  beets,  etc.,  but  other  crops  will  also  be  benefited  by  its 
use.  An  increase  in  the  organic  matter  through  the  use  of  stable 
manure,  green  manuring  crops,  and  the  plowing  under  of  stubble, 
straw,  or  other  roughage  is  also  important  and  the  use  of  some  form 
of  phosphate  fertilizer  will  still  further  increase  their  fertility. 

These  lands  are  already  entirely  occupied  by  farms,  but  a very 
considerable  increase  in  their  productivity  can  be  produced  by  the 
application  of  methods  above  suggested. 


HEAVY  RED  CLAY 


33 


CHAPTER  X, 
HEAVY  RED  CLAY 


A broad  belt  of  heavy  red  clay  occupying  about  1,000,000  acres 
extends  along  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  Small  areas  of 
the  same  soil  occur  in  Burnett  county,  also  in  southeastern  Shawano 
county.  The  country  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior  occupied  by 
this  soil  is  a plain  gradually  rising  from  the  lake,  sloping  at  the  rate 
of  thirty  to  thirty-five  feet  to  the  mile.  Rather  deep  ravines  and  stream 
valleys  have  cut  their  way  back  into  the  plain  from  the  lake  making 
areas  of  steep  or  hilly  topography  in  places.  The  sides  of  these  ravines 
and  valleys  have  good  drainage  while  some  portions  of  the  land  be- 
tween these  channels  are  somewhat  poorly  drained.  Shallow  de- 
pressions or  pot  holes  are  occasionally  found,  but  for  the  most  part, 
there  is  sufficient  slope  to  permit  good  surface  drainage  on  this  type  of 
soil. 

Most  of  this  soil  originally  bore  a heavy  growth  of  White  and  Nor- 
way pine,  together  with  birch  and  some  hemlock.  After  the  pine 
timber  had  been  cut  a thick  growth  of  poplar,  White  birch,  balsam 
and  willow  brush  took  its  place.  Large  areas  of  this  soil  have  been 
so  frequently  burned  over  that  only  very  small  brush  or  poplar  and 
birch  trees  remain  so  that  on  these  areas  the  clearing  is  not  especially 
difficult.  On  some  tracts  the  later  growth  of  birch  and  poplar  are 
quite  thick,  making  clearing  more  expensive. 

Value  and  Uses.  The  fine  texture  of  this  soil  makes  it  especially 
adapted  to  small  grains  and  grass  as  hay  for  pasture.  Wheat,  barley 
and  oats  on  well  managed  farms  of  this  soil  produce  very  high  yields 
of  exceptionally  good  quality  of  grain.  Field  peas,  clover,  timothy, 
and  other  grasses  grow  unusually  well.  On  account  of  the  heavy 
character  of  the  soil  which  makes  tillage  and  the  development  of 
good  tilth  difficult  during  wet  seasons  this  land  is  not  so  well  adapted 
to  corn  or  other  cultivated  crops  as  are  somewhat  lighter  soils. 
Hardy  root  crops  should  be  substituted  largely  for  corn  or  stock 
feed.  The  nearness  to  the  lake  keeps  the  temperature  somewhat 
lower  during  the  growing  season  which  is  also  a disadvantage  for 


34 


THE  SOILS 'OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


corn.  If,  after  two  or  three  crops  of  clover  have  been  grown,  care 
is  taken  not  to  plow  and  cultivate  this  land  when  it  is  too  wet,  the 
mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  becomes  very  much  better,  and  corn 
and  other  cultivated  crops  can  be  grown  more  successfully,  especially 
on  tracts  which  have  good  slope. 

Tiling  and  Fertilizing.  Tile  drainage  is  very  successful  on  this 
class  of  soil  and  will  prove  one  of  the  chief  improvements  which  can 
be  made  in  it.  This  soil  is  usually  not  acid,  though  occasionally 
patches  of  acid  soil  are  found.  The  amount  of  organic  matter,  or 
humus  varies  a good  deal.  The  slight  depressions  scattered  over 
the  surface  usually  contain  a shallow  muck,  giving  the  soil  consider- 
able organic  matter,  though  in  general,  the  soil  is  not  high  in  humus 
and  an  effort  should  be  made  to  increase  this  through  the  use  of  stable 
manure  and  green  manuring  crops.  Besides  organic  matter  and 
nitrogen,  the  only  element  at  all  lacking  as  plant  food  is  phosphorus. 
The  amount  of  this  element  in  this  soil  is  somewhat  less  than  in  other 
classes  of  clay  soils  and  the  use  of  some  form  of  phosphate 
fertilizer  in  addition  to  stable  manure  will  in  the  long  run  be  found 
beneficial,  though  its  use  is  not  necessary  in  order  to  secure  good 
yields  for  several  years  after  breaking. 


clover,  timothy  and  other  grasses  do  unusually  well. 


H 


w 

o 

Qi 


S' 

K 

» 

SO 

a> 


Of 

0WW8SITT  OF  IUINOW 


POORLY  DRAINED  SOILS 


35 


CHAPTER  XI. 

POORLY  DRAINED  SOILS 

This  group  of  soils  includes  bottom  land  along  streams  and  along 
the  borders  of  marshes  where  the  lack  of  good  underdrainage  fre- 
quently extends  for  some  distance  beyond  the  marsh  proper.  The 
meadow  lands  along  streams  are  mostly  subject  to  overflow  during 
high  water,  but  even  where  not  overflowed  the  drainage  is  not  suf- 
ficient for  good  cultivation.  A few  small  additional  tracts  are  in- 
cluded with  these  soils  and  shown  on  the  map  as  poorly  drained  lands, 
which  are  so  situated  that  they  receive  spring  or  seepage  water  from 
above,  making  the  subsoil  too  wet  for  cultivation. 

Most  of  these  soils  would  be  available  for  farming  if  they  were 
underdrained.  Part  of  them  are  so  situated  that  they  cannot  be 
readily  and  economically  drained  as  in  the  case  of  those  lying  along 
streams  and  subject  to  overflow  at  high  water  which  would  require 
very  considerable  expense  for  diking  to  prevent  the  overflow. 

It  has  not  been  found  practicable  to  subdivide  these  poorly  drained 
soils  into  as  many  classes  with  reference  to  texture  or  fineness  of 
grain  as  in  the  case  of  upland  soils  and  they  have  been  simply  divided 
into  (1)  poorly  drained  sandy  soil  and  (2)  poorly  drained  heavier 
soils. 


POORLY  DRAINED  SANDY  SOILS 

Poorly  drained  sandy  soils  include  strips  of  land  along  the  borders 
of  the  marshes  in  sandy  sections.  They  are  mostly  covered  with  a 
growth  of  hemlock,  cedar,  birch,  etc.,  but  there  are  frequent  patches 
of  open  meadow  bearing  blue-joint  and  other  marsh  grasses.  The 
soil  is  usually  quite  dark  or  black  in  color  from  the  organic  or  vegetable 
matter  they  contain  although  this  vegetable  matter  does  not  constitute 
more  than  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  soil,  and  they 
cannot,  therefore,  be  called  muck  or  peat. 

Improving  and  Fertilising.  Drainage  should  be  the  first  step 
in  the  improvement  of  these  soils;  though  much  of  it  can  be  used  for 
crops  which  will  stand  considerable  water,  such  as  red  top,  and  blue 
joint,  or  even  timothy  and  alsike  clover  for  hay  and  pasture.  Any 
further  use  for  farming  purposes  would  require  drainage.  Most  of 


36 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


these  soils  are  also  somewhat  acid  and  will  be  benefited  by  liming, 
and  by  the  use  of  some  fertilizers  containing  phosphorus,  unless 
stable  manure  is  available.  After  clearing,  this  treatment  will  add 
greatly  to  the  value  even  of  the  pasture. 

POORLY  DRAINED  HEAVY  SOILS 

This  group  includes  wet  lands  lying  along  the  borders  of  marshes 
and  along  streams,  such  as  loams  and  silt  loams  with  generally  heavy 
subsoils.  Most  of  this  land  was  covered  by  a growth  of  trees  in- 
cluding soft  maple,  elm,  cedar,  black  ash  and  birch. 

Value  and  Use.  The  agricultural  use  of  this  land  in  its  present 
condition  is  quite  variable.  Most  of  it  can  be  developed  into  very 
good  pasturage  after  clearing  and  seeding  in  of  the  right  grasses. 
Land  of  this  kind  should  be  divided  up  with  higher  layid  so  that  it 
can  be  used  as  pasture  while  the  higher  land  is  used  for  other  crops. 

Drainage  Needed  for  Full  Use.  Where  this  land  is  so  situated 
that  it  can  be  drained  either  by  good  ditches  or  by  tiling,  practically 
all  of  it  is  capable  of  development  into  very  good  farm  land.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  portions  of  this  land  in  Marathon,  Clark,  Taylor 
and  Lincoln  counties. 


PEAT  AND  MUCK 


37 


CHAPTER  XII. 
PEAT  AND  MUCK 


Marshes  of  considerable  extent  occur  scattered  over  a large  part 
of  the  northern  portion  of  the  state.  These  have  been  largely  formed  by 
the  gradual  filling  up  of  shallow  lakes  left  at  the  close  of  the  ice 
epoch.  Sphagnum  moss  and  other  water  plants  growing  in  these 
lakes  and  settling  to  the  bottom  gradually  filled  them  up,  leaving 
the  deposit  of  peat.  Where  sediment  from  upland  washed  in  it 
formed  muck.  The  vegetable  matter  of  these  peat  and  muck  soils 
varies  in  depth  from  a few  inches  to  as  much  as  10  ft.  or  12  ft.  The 
most  common  depth  is  between  2 and  5 ft. 

Drainage  Needed  for  Development.  Two  factors  influence  the 
cost  of  reclaiming  these  marsh  lands  for  agricultural  use:  (1),  the 

readiness  with  which  good  drainage  can  be  secured,  and  (2),  the 
expense  of  clearing  and  breaking.  When  the  land  exists  in  large 
tracts,  the  organization  of  drainage  districts  will  usually  be  necessary 
in  order  to  secure  sufficient  outlet.  -The  distance  and  amount  of 
ditching  necessary  to  secure  this  outlet  ditch,  and  the  co-operation 
of  all  land  owners  concerned  must  be  considered.  Then  again  when 
the  marsh  land  is  covered  with  a heavy  growth  of  tamarack,  spruce 
or  other  trees,  the  labor  of  clearing  is  of  course  very  much  larger 
than  in  the  case  of  open  grass  marshes. 

Thorough  drainage  of  these  lands,  which  will  make  possible  the 
growth  of  other  crops  than  simply  pasture  or  hay  grasses,  usually 
requires  that  ditches  or  still  better  tile  be  put  in  from  six  to  ten  rods 
apart  and  costing  under  ordinary  conditions  from  $15  to  $25  per  acre. 

Handling  and  Fertilizing.  In  addition  to  good  drainage,  these 
muck  and  peat  lands  are  found  to  require  fertilizers  containing 
phosphorus  and  potash  to  maintain  their  fertility.  They  are  very 
high  in  nitrogen,  a plant  food  which  occurs  in  the  organic  matter. 
Fertilizers  containing  phosphorus  and  potash  will  ordinarily  give  as 
good  results  as  will  heavy  applications  of  stable  manure  so  that  on 
farms  including  upland  as  well  as  marsh  land,  the  stable  manure 
should  be  used  on  the  upland  and  phosphate  and  potash  fertilizers 
purchased  for  the  marsh  land.  In  addition  to  proper  fertilization 
these  lands  are  usually  open  and  loose  in  character  and  are  greatly 


38 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


benefited  by  the  use  of  a heavy  roller  to  compact  the  soil.  Pasturing 
for  two  or  three  years  where  this  is  practicable  effects  the  same  im- 
provement. 

The  use  of  lime  in  some  form  is  very  frequently  necessary  in 
addition  to  the  other  fertilizers  mentioned.  This  is  particularly  true 
in  the  case  of  very  raw  peat  marshes,  especially  in  the  northern 
part  of  this  section,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  use  of  lime,  or  ground 
limestone,  or  marl,  at  the  rate  of  1 to  2 tons  per  acre  for  the  first 
application  followed  by  about  y2  ton  every  3 to  5 years  will  be  found 
profitable  very  generally. 

Crops  for  Marsh  Land.  When  well  drained,  properly  fertilized 
and  managed,  these  marsh  lands  can  be  made  to  produce  heavy  yields 
of  the  crops  to  which  they  are  adapted.  Among  these  crops  are 
certain  special  crops  such  as  cabbage,  celery  and  onions,  but  of  course 
the  larger  portions  must  be  used  for  staple  crops  including  buck- 
wheat, grasses  for  hay  and  pasture,  especially  timothy  and  alsike 
clover,  hardy  root  crops  and  some  small  grains,  especially  rye.  These 
lands  are  more  subject  to  frost  than  upland  and  so  are  less  adapted 
to  tender  crops,  such  as  corn  or  potatoes. 


ROUGH  OR  VERY  STONY  LAND 


39 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

ROUGH  OR  VERY  STONY  LAND 


There  is  considerable  land  in  northern  Wisconsin  which  is  so  rough 
and  hilly  as  to  make  the  use  of  agricultural  machinery  impracticable 
and  it  is,  therefore,  unsuited  to  agricultural  use.  Most  of  the  land 
of  this  character  occurs  in  tracts  of  considerable  size.  There  is, 
however,  quite  a little  rough  land  scattered  through  the  other  types 
of  soil  in  small  areas  which  it  was  impracticable  to  indicate  separately 
on  the  map.  Moreover,  when  this  rough  land  occurs  in  small  tracts 

it  can  be  divided  up  with  good  land  adjacent  in  such  a way  that  it 

can  be  used  as  pasture  or  wood-lot  to  good  advantage.  But  when 
rough  land  occupies  tracts  three  or  four  square  miles  or  more  in 

extent,  it  is  impossible  to  divide  it  up  into  farms  on  which  there 

will  be  a sufficient  amount  of  good  tillable  land.  Two  phases  of  this 
rough  and  hilly  land  are  shown  on  the  map. 

Sandy  Soil.  This  phase  is  pot  only  very  rolling,  or  rough  and 
stony,  but  the  soil  is  so  sandy  as  not  to  be  able  to  support  even  a 
fair  pasture  grass.  Rock  outcrop  and  rough  stony  land  is  included 
where  bed  rock  or  ledge  rocks  outcrop  so  frequently  that  the  shallow 
soil  cover  cannot  well  be  cultivated. 

Value  and  Uses.  This  class  of  land  could  be  used  for  woodlots  or 
forestry  purposes,  and  this  is  the  only  extensive  use  to  which  they 
are  adapted.  This  land  occurs  extensively  in  Bayfield,  Sawyer,  Vilas, 
Oneida,  and  Forest  counties  and  to  less  extent  in  several  other 
counties.  It  is  of  course  true  that  there  are  some  small  tracts  as 
large  as  forty  acres  in  extent  that  are  sufficiently  smooth  to  permit 
cultivation,  associated  with  this  rough  land,  but  it  has  been  imprac- 
ticable to  separate  these  in  the  work  of  the  Survey  in  this  part  of 
the  'state  and  even  if  the  small  tracts  were  separate,  it  would  be 
undesirable  for  settlers  to  locate  on  these  tracts  scattered  infrequently 
through  larger  areas  which  would  not  be  suitable  for  agricultural  use 
since  they  would  be  very  much  isolated  and  have  poor  schools,  and 
other  disadvantages.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  large  tracts  of 
rough  sandy  land  will  be  developed  for  forestry  purposes  by  either 
the  state  or  by  private  interests. 

Heavy  Soil.  The  other  class  of  rough  lands  has  a sufficiently  heavy 
soil  to  carry  at  least  a fair  pasture  grass  through  ordinary  seasons 


40 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


and  so  is  suitable  for  grazing.  Land  of  this  character  occurs  iu 
considerable  tracts  in  Taylor,  Lincoln,  Oneida,  Vilas,  Price,  Rusk 
and  some  other  counties.  Much  of  this  land  is  not  only  too  rough 
for  cultivation,  but  is  very  stony. 

Value  and  Uses.  It  would  be  suitable  for  grazing  on  a large  scale. 
It  is  of  course  true  that  there  are  some  small  tracts  of  comparatively 
good  land  which  could  be  cultivated  scattered  through  this  rough 
land,  but  there  is  too  small  an  amount  of  it  to  raise  the  feed  necessary 
for  winter  feeding  of  stock  which  would  pasture  on  the  rough  land. 
It  would  be  necessary,  therefore,  either  to  take  stock  to  other  sections 
for  winter  feeding  or  to  haul  feed  to  these  sections  which  could  be 
used  for  grazing. 

Clearing  for  Pasture.  The  proper  clearing  of  this  land  for  pasture 
purposes  is  a matter  which  would  require  considerable  care.  The 
pasturage  on  the  uncleared  brush  land  is  of  course  very  poor  and 
it  would  be  necessary  to  “brush”  the  land  and  seed  in  grasses  in 
order  to  secure  good  pasturage.  Such  land  would  have  a very  con- 
siderable value  for  this  purpose.  The  gross  returns  are  of  course 
small  in  comparison  with  those  from  cultivated  land,  but  the  expense 
of  management  is  also  very  small  so  that  the  net  profit  is  very 
considerable.  Northern  Wisconsin  is  especially  adapted  to  grazing 
because  it  has  comparatively  cool  summers  and  an  excellent  rain- 
fall. The  rainfall  during  the  six  months  from  the  first  of  May  till 
the  first  of  November  is  about  18  inches  and  is  ordinarily  very  well 
distributed  through  this  period.  Moreover,  the  heavy  snows  which 
usually  occur  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  act  as  a protection  to  the 
grasses  through  the  winter  and  are  absorbed  gradually  in  the  spring 
giving  the  soil  a sufficient  amount  of  moisture  to  penetrate  several 
feet  into  the  subsoil.  While  pasturage  is  usually  not  good  until  about 
the  middle  of  May,  it  ordinarily  continues  good  late  in  the  fall  so  that 
the  pasture  period  is  seldom  less  than  six  months. 


HOW  TO  USE  THE  MAP 


41 


HOW  TO  USE  THE  MAP 

The  location  or  description  of  a tract  of  land  is  usually  given  by 
Section,  Township,  Range,  thus:  Sec.  10,  T.  35  N,  R 5 E.  This 
map  is  so  drawn  that  one  inch  on  the  map  means  six  (6)  miles  on 
the  ground,  and  it  is  divided  by  dotted  lines  into  squares  one  inch 
on  each  side.  These  squares  are  Civil  Townships.  The  townships 
are  numbered  from  the  bottom  of  the  map  UP,  beginning  with  Town- 
ship 25  North.  The  number  of  the  Range  (R5E,  or  R 5 W)  shows 
how  many  squares  the  township  is  east  or  west  of  the  Fourth  Prin- 
cipal Meridian.  The  Fourth  Principal  Meridian  runs  north  and 
south  just  west  of  Phillips  in  Price  County.  To  make  locating  easy, 
the  Ranges  are  numbered  across  the  bottom  of  the  map  and  along  an 
east  and  west  line  just  north  of  Park  Falls  in  Price  County.  The  town- 
ship numbers  are  put  along  the  sides  of  the  map,  and  on  the  Fourth 
Principal  Meridian. 

A Correction  Line  running  across  the  map  from  Marinette  to 
New  Richmond  causes  an  offset  in  the  Range  Lines  between  Townships 
30  and  31  N.  For  locations  north  of  this  correction  line  use  the  Range 
numbers  (II,  V,  X,  etc.)  found  along  the  east  and  west  line  just 
north  of  Park  Falls. 

Each  township  is  divided  into  36  sections.  They  are  numbered 
beginning  at  the  upper  right  hand  corner  and  running  west  to  No.  6. 
Section  7 is  immediately  south  of  section  6,  and  12  immediately 
south  of  1,  13  south  of  12,  and  so  on. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  assistance  given  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  report  by  L.  R.  Sehoenmann,  W.  J.  Geib,  E.  J.  Delwiche, 
F.  L.  Musback,  and  H.  W.  Ullsperger,  in  addition  to  that  given  by 
Carl  Thompson  and  T.  J.  Dunne wald  which  is  indicated  on  the  title 
page. 


42 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


APPENDIX  I. 


The  foregoing  pages  are  based  on  the  reconnoissance  survey  of 
the  northern  half  of  the  state  on  which  five  reports  have  been  pub- 
lished as  follows : 

1.  South  Part  of  Northwest  Wisconsin. 

2.  North  Part  of  Northwest  Wisconsin. 

3.  Northeastern  Wisconsin. 

4.  North  Part  of  North  Central  Wisconsin. 

5.  South  Part  of  North  Central  Wisconsin. 

It  also  includes  the  detailed  survey  of  Door  County  and  the  northern 
tier  of  towns  in  Kewaunee,  Brown,  Waupaca,  Portage,  Wood  and 
Clark  counties. 

The  types  described  in  these  reports  have  been  grouped  in  the 
present  report  as  shown  in  the  following  list : 


Sands 


Level  Sands 

Plainfield  Sand 
Beach  Sand 
Sterling  Sand 
Plainfield  Gravelly  Sand. 


Undulating  Sands 
Vilas  Sand 
Coloma  Sand 
Gloucester  Sand 


Light  Sandy  Loams 

Level  Light  Sandy  Loams 
Plainfield  Fine  Sand 
Plainfield  Sandy  Loam 
Superior  Fine  Sand 
Meridian  Sandy  Loam 
Thornapple  Sandy  Loam 
Chetek  Sandy  Loam 


appendix 


43 


ndulating  Light  Sandy  Loams 
Yilas  Fine  Sand 

Vilas  Sandy  Loam  and  Rolling  Phase 

Coloma  Fine  Sandy  (Auburn  Sandy  Loam-  part) 

Coloma  Sandy  Loam 

Marathon  Sandy  Loam 

Boone  fine  Sand. 


Heavy  Sandy  Loams 

evel  Heavy  Sandy  Loams 

Antigo  Fine  Sandy  Loam 

Superior  Fine  Sandy  Loam,  Level  Phase 

Rice  Lake  Loam  (part) 

Fox  Fine  Sandy  Loam 

Superior  Loam  (Iron  and  Burnett  Counties) 

oiling  Heavy  Sandy  Loams 

Kennan  Fine  Sandy  Loam 

Kennan  Loam,  Rolling  Phase 

Mellen  Fine  Sandy  Loam  and  Rolling  Phase 

Mellen  Loam  and  Rolling  Phase 

Boone  Fine  Sandy  Loam 

Auburn  Loams 

Marathon  Fine  Sandy  Loam 

Superior  Loam  (Burnett  County) 

Superior  Fine  Sandy  Loam 
Superior  Sandy  Loam 
Chelsea  Loam 

alcareous  Heavy  Sandy  Loams 

Miami  Fine  Sandy  Loam  and  Poorly  Drained  Phase 
Miami  Loams 
Cushing  Loams 


Silt  Loams  With  Well-Drained  Subsoils 

evel  Silt  Loams  With  Well-Drained  Subsoil 
Antigo  Silt  Loam 
Milltown  Silt  Loam 
Rice  Lake  Loams,  Silt  Loam  Phase 

jevel  Prairie  Silt  Loams  with  Well-Drained  Subsoil. 
Rice  Lake  Loam  (part) 


44 


THE  SOILS  OF  UPPER  WISCONSIN 


Rolling  Silt  Loams  with  Well-Drained  Subsoil 
Kennan  Silt  Loam  and  Rolling  Phase 
Mellen  Silt  Loam  and  Rolling  Phase 
Marathon  Silt  Loam 
Marathon  Gravelly  Silt  Loam 


Silt  Loams  With  Heavy  Subsoils 

Level  Silt  Loams  with  Tight  Subsoil 
Colby  Silt  Loam,  Level  Phase 
Colby  Loam 
Vesper  Silt  Loam 
Webster  Loam,  Clay  Loam  Phase 

Rolling  Silt  Loams  with  Heavy  Subsoil 
Colby  Silt  Loam,  Rolling  Phase 
Superior  Loam 

Superior  Loam,  Rolling  Phase 

Silt  Loams  on  Limestone 

Rolling  Prairie  Silt  Loams  on  Limestone 
Part  of  Baldwin  Silt  Loam 

Unglaciated  Silt  Loams  on  Limestone 
Knox  silt  loam 

Glaciated  Silt  Loams  on  Limestone 
Miami  Silt  Loam 
Baldwin  Silt  Loam 

Heavy  Red  Clay 


Clays  and  Clay  Loams 

Superior  Clay  Loam  and  Rolling  Phase 
Superior  Clay 


Poorly  Drained  Soils 


Sandy 

Dunning  Fine  Sand 

Plainfield  Fine  Sand,  Poorly  Drained  Phase 
Genesee  Sand 
Genesse  Sandy  Loam 


APPENDIX 


45 


leavy 

Whitman  Silt  Loam 
Meadow 
Genesse  Loam 
Genesee  Silt  Loam 
Poygan  Fine  Sandy  Loam 
Clyde  Loam 

Vesper  Fine  Sandy  Loam 
Colby  Fine  Sandy  Loam 


Peat  and  Muck 

hvamp  and  Marsh 

Rough  or  Very  Stony  Land 

landy  Soil 

Vilas  Sand 

Vilas  Stony  Sand 

Vilas  Gravelly  Sandy  Loam 

Rock  Outcrop 

Rough  Stony  Land 

Heavier  Soil 

Kennan  Fine  Sandy  Loam,  Rough  Phase 
Vilas  Sandy  Loam,  Rolling  Phase 

Iron  range,  Copper  range,  Rib  Hill,  rough  areas  in  Kennan 
Silt  Loam  and  Chelsea  Loam,  etc. 


. 


. 

. 


. 


- 


,0.1 


£3 


Bulletin  307 


November,  1919 


mwrr 

The  Rural  Community  Fair 

f£B  -3  m 


C.  J.  GALPIN  and  EMILY  F.  HOAG 


MEET  US  AT  THE  COMMUNITY  PAIR 

If  the  town  is  the  neighborhood  center,  the  streets  will  gladly  be  given  up  for  the 
fair.  Don’t  forget  the  merry-go-round  for  the  children. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION  OF 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


The  community  fair  awakens  the  community  pride,  spirit,  and 
life.  It  includes  every  person  in  the  neighborhood  and  every  organi- 
zation or  business  there.  It  is  a day  on  which  the  whole  country- 
side plays  and  renews  acquaintanceship.  Pages  3 to  6. 

It  may  be  promoted  by  the  town,  the  school,  a merchant,  a fann- 
er’s organization,  a neighborhood  club,  church,  or  high-school,  the 
county  or  township  or  other  organization.  The  organization,  the  rais- 
ing of  the  money,  the  location  of  the  fair,  appointment  of  committees, 
and  other  duties  vary  with  the  community  and  with  the  fair. 

Pages  16  to  18. 

Advertising  the  fair  is  an  essential  and  important  duty.  The  news- 
paper men  gladly  cooperate.  Various  types  of  publicity  material  such 
as  slogans,  a calendar,  premium  list,  booklet,  or  poster,  as  well  as 
newspaper  advertising,  may  be  used  effectively.  Pages  18  to  27. 

To  produce  and  stage  the  fair  requires  careful  thought  and  hard 
work  on  the  part  of  the  committees  in  charge.  Committees  on  ar- 
rangement, on  special  contests,  exhibits,  entertainment,  and  other 
lines  of  activity  must  be  appointed.  Subcommittees  are  also  effective 
in  efficient  management.  Pages  38  to  43. 

Priles  and  awards!  must  be  handled  fairly,  and  the  committees  hav- 
ing them  in  charge  must  use  judgment  and  discrimination.  Cash 
prizes  do  not  have  to  be  given.  Medals,  ribbons,  cups,  or  trade  prizes 
may  be  used.  Pages  43  to  44. 

The  fair  should  result  in  a better  community.  Well  organized,  ef- 
ficiently managed,  with  the  community  interests  at  heart,  the  fair  will 
be  a community  asset.  Pages  44  to  49 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


In  the  fall  of  each  year  the  farmers  of  Wisconsin  throw  on 
the  screen  before  the  public  a great  moving  picture  of  their 
year’s  activities.  Thousands  of  accurate  photographs  of  the 
country  at  its  best  go  into  the  making  of  this  picture.  The 
state  fair  provides  the  spectacular,  breath-taking  interludes  in 
the  picture ; the  county  fairs  contribute  the  big  crowd  activities ; 
the  small  community  fairs  supply  that  element  without  which 
any  film  picture  is  incomplete,  for  they  give  to  the  fall  festival 
picture  the  intimate  touch,  the  “close-up”  on  the  farmers’  pro- 
ducts, ambitions,  and  victories. 

Although  these  “close-up”  fairs  may  include  but  one  or 
two  neighborhoods,  yet  we  find  that,  throughout  Wisconsin,  they 
are  usually  as  excellent  and  painstaking  in  workmanship  as 
are  the  great  county  exhibits  which  represent  dozens  of  com- 
munities. As  a matter  of  fact,  there  is  a peculiar  inspiration 
about  staging  a community  fair  that  can  not,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  be  experienced  in  the  organization  of  a larger  exhibit. 

In  the  small  community  fair,  neighbor  works  with  neighbor; 
the  home-grown  products  are  seen  in  a new  light;  every  con- 
testant is  known  to  every  other  contestant  as  well  as  to  all  the 
spectators.  The  conditions  and  circumstances  under  which  all 
the  products  are  made  or  grown  are  known  to  all  the  parti- 
cipants; a special  pride  is  taken  in  every  prize-winning  entry 
by  the  whole  community. 

At  first  thought,  it  may  possibly  seem  that  the  community 
fairs,  although  well  enough  in  themselves,  may  prove  some- 
what detrimental  to  the  success  of  the  county  fairs  of  the  state. 
We  find,  however,  that  there  is  no  need  for  any  such  fear.  On 
the  contrary,  it  appears  that  the  community  fairs  are  fast  be- 
coming a force  in  rejuvenating  the  county  fairs. 

At  the  community  fairs,  which  are  frequently  held  a little 
earlier  in  the  fall  than  the  county  fairs,  the  people  of  a com- 
munity or  neighborhood  discover  their  strongest  points,  their 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


best  exhibits,  and  are  eager  to  take  them  where  they  may  be 
compared  with  similar  exhibits  from  other  communities. 

Neighborhoods,  communities,  school  districts,  and  farmers’ 
clubs  have  got  in  the  habit  of  making  an  entry  of  special  booths 


fig.  l— crowds  come  from  far  and  near 

People  will  come  a long  way  to  attend  a worthwhile  fair.  It  does  not  pay  to  be 
satisfied  with  anything  but  the  best. 

of  their  best  products  at  the  county  fair.  In  some  cases,  as  at 
the  Walworth  County  Fair,  a farmers’  club  contest  with  as  many 
as  nine  or  ten  clubs  competing  in  exhibits  has  become  an  annual 
feature  which  provides  competition  as  keen  as  that  provided  by 
the  old-time  county  fair  horse  races. 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


5 


The  community  standardizes  its  products.  A community 
should  not  hesitate  to  give  a fair  for  fear  the  result  will  be 
inferior  in  some  respects.  It  is  necessary,  in  fact,  to  make  at 
least  one  or  two  trials  to  find  out  just  where  the  best  material 
for  building  up  the  fair  may  be  found.  The  first  year  it  may 
be  found  impossible  to  call  for  exhibits  in  certain  standard 
breeds  of  seeds  or  animals.  A few  specimens  of  the  best  of 
these  may,  however,  be  on  exhibit.  A discussion  of  the  valued 
points  may  follow  and  it  is  likely  that,  in  the  following  year, 
the  sentiment  of  the  community  may  be  turned  towards  the 
production  of  certain  standard  varieties  of  potatoes,  poultry, 
pigs,  and  calves. 

In  this  fashion  the  community  fair  gradually  enables  a com- 
munity to  build  up  for  itself  a reputation  for  certain  lines  of 
products,  and  this  in  time  may  lead  to  standardization  of  pack- 
ing, shipping  and  selling. 

The  community  fair  leaves  out  no  one.  There  is  no  member 

of  the  community  left  out  of  the  community  fair.  Everyone  is 
included  from  the  youngest,  who  figure  in  the  better  babies 
contest,  to  the  oldest,  who  have  in  their  charge  the  cherished 
historic  relics.  No  interest  in  the  community  is  omitted 
from  the  community  fair  program.  The  local  paper,  the  school, 
the  church,  the  clubs,  the  choral  union,  the  dramatic  class,  the 
junior  gardeners,  the  boy  scouts,  all  have  a place  in  this  com- 
munity event. 

The  fair  blazes  new  trails.  It  gets  all  kinds  of  people  work- 
ing together  in  new  relationships.  New  abilities  are  discovered, 
talent  is  developed,  and  best  of  all,  people  learn  new  ways  and 
means  of  cooperating.  Wherever  the  good  community  fair  has 
left  its  footprints,  flowers  of  social  cooperation  are  likely  to 
spring  up  as  memorials  to  this  working-together  festival. 

The  fair  is  a community  booster.  When  a community  gives 
a fair,  it  advertises  itself.  Through  the  paper,  the  posters,  the 
talks,  and  through  the  exhibit  at  the  fair  itself,  the  best  kind 
of  community  advertising  is  obtained  each  year.  The  com- 
munity gets  known  as  a fine  place  for  farming,  a splendid  place 
in  which  to  have  a home,  and  a good  place  to  go  for  worth- 
while ideas,  products,  and  men. 

The  fair  is  an  exchange  center.  Everyone  who  shares  in 
giving  a community  fair  is  bound  to  learn  a great  deal  in  the 


FIG.  2.— COMMUNITY  BOOTHS  AT  THE  COUNTY  FAIR 

As  a result  of  the  local  community  picnic  or  fair,  booths  or  exhibits  are  often 
sent  to  the  county  or  state  fair. 

* 

The  farmer  and  his  family  are  too  likely  to  see  their  sur- 
roundings and  their  neighbors  only  in  the  guise  of  serious 
labor.  The  community  fair  breaks  up  this  monotonous  outlook 
and  presents  for  their  consideration  a thousand  new  kaleidoscopic 
glimpses  of  this  same  neighborhood  life.  A community  fair, 
rightly  conducted,  is  equivalent  to  a month’s  vacation. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


course  of  his  efforts.  He  trades  ideas  with  all  his  neighbors  and 
goes  home  richer  in  thought.  He  discovers  where  the  best  seed, 
the  finest  eggs  in  the  neighborhood  may  be  obtained.  He  finds 
what  farmers  are  in  need  of  his  kind  of  purebred  stock.  He 
gets  to  know  and  understand  his  town  neighbors  also,  if  the 
fair  is  given  at  the  trade  center.  His  town  neighbor  gets  to 
know  him,  too,  and  mutual  respect  is  bound  to  result. 


How  to  Plan  and  Organize  the  Fair 

Agencies  for  promoting  a fair.  There  are  various  ways  in 
which  a fair  may  be  started.  It  may  start  as  the  very  modest 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


7 


effort  of  one  socially  minded  individual.  This  clipping  from 
a country  paper  gives  an  account  of  a community  fair  started 
and  managed  by  a local  priest: 

AGRICULTURAL  SHOW  I 

St.  Joseph’s  school  hall  in  the  town 
of  Oneida  (Brown  County),  was  a 
busy  place  Thursday  night  of  last 
week.  The  Rev.  Father  Vissers  held 
an  agricultural  show  and  box  social. 

It  was  one  of  the  most  pleasant  af- 
fairs ever  held  in  the  township.  Peo- 
ple came  from  miles  to  the  little 
building  to  exhibit  the  produce  of 
their  acreage,  and  the  county  agent, 

E.  A.  Carncross,  was  high  in  his 
praise  of  the  splendid  produce  shown 
by  the  young  people  of  this  school. 

Father  Vissers  has  a class  in  his  pa- 
rochial school  and  also  conducts  an 
experiment  station,  believing  that  the 
boys  and  girls  should  be  encouraged 
to  stay  on  the  farms. 


How  a fair  may  be  successfully  featured  as  a part  of  a small 
town  merchant’s  policy  is  shown  in  part  by  the  following 
premium  list,  put  out  by  Mr.  Cristy  of  Waupaca. 

THE  1910  PREMIUM  LIST 
Waupaca’s  Fourth  Annual  Vegetable 
Contest  Will  be  Held 
THURSDAY,  FRIDAY  AND 
SATURDAY,  SEPT.  15,  16,  17. 

The  following  premiums  will  be 
given  for  exhibits  brought  to  our 
store  Thursday,  Sept.  15,  and  up  to 
10  a.  m.  Friday,  Sept.  16,  when  pre- 
miums will  be  awarded.  Articles 
can  be  called  for,  if  desired,  by 
3 p.  m.,  Saturday,  Sept.  17. 

The  prize  winners,  except  roses, 
canned  fruit,  pickles  and  jellies,  to 
be  ours  after  the  show.  We  will  pay 
market  price  for  other  exhibits  if  you 
wish  to  leave  them. 

All  entries  must  be  the  product  of 
the  party  making  the  exhibit. 

It  happens  more  frequently,  however,  that  the  idea  of  a 
community  fair  starts  with  some  organized  groups  of  people,  as 
a church,  school,  women’s  club,  commercial  club,  or  farmers’ 

club. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


Here  is  a short  account  of  a fair  organized  by  the  La  Grange 
Farmers’  Club  of  Walworth  County. 

The  Farmers’  Club  Fair  in  the 
community  hall  and  sheds  last  Wed- 
nesday was  a decided  success  and 
was  well  attended,  both  day  and 
evening-.  There  was  a good  display 
of  vegetables,  bread,  cookies,  cakes, 
etc.,  also  sheep,  chickens,  calves,  and 
ponies.  About  $78  in  premiums  were 
given  to  the  children,  while  the  men 
received  ribbons  for  the  kinds  of 
grains,  besides  corn.  Mr.  Bewick  of 
Madison  was  the  speaker  in  the  even- 
ing. We  are  hoping  for  a bigger  and 
better  fair  next  year. 


This  account  shows  how  the  Port  Edwards  (Wood  County) 
Improvement  Society,  the  local  women’s  club,  and  the  Ne- 
koosa-Edwards  Paper  Mill  worked  together  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  a community  fair  which  produced  good  results. 

The  Port  Edwards  Improvement 
Association  was  organized  in  the 
spring  of  1915  for  the  purpose  out- 
lined in  the  enclosed  copy  of  by-laws. 

The  different  committees  worked 
during  the  summer  months  and  pre- 
pared everybody  and  everything  for 
the  combined  flower  and  vegetable 
show  held  at  the  schoolhouse  in  Sep- 
tember of  that  year  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Ladies’  Club. 

In  1916  we  worked  along  the 
same  lines  but  the  early  frost  spoiled 
our  gardens  so  the  annual  show 
could  not  be  held. 

In  the  spring  of  1917  this  associa- 
tion with  the  help  of  the  Nekoosa- 
Edwards  Paper  Company  started  a 
drive  to  assist  the  people  of  this  vil- 
lage in  raising  vegetables. 

The  paper  company  turned  o\er 
the  land  plowed  and  prepared  for 
planting  free  of  charge  and  furnish- 
ed seed  at  cost,  and  in  two  cases, 
free. 

The  individual  lots  were  60  by  150 
feet,  and  about  70  families  applied 
for  land.  The  improvement  associa- 
tion had  charge  of  the  allotment  and 
prepared  a map  of  the  village,  show- 
ing the  different  locations  with  the 
names  of  the  occupants.  This  map 
was  placed  in  the  post  office  for  pub- 
lic information  and  was  kept  there 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


9 


all  summer  in  case  any  disputes 
should  arise. 

This  year  we  encouraged  the  rais- 
ing of  potatoes  and  garden  truck 
land  did  not  offer  any  prizes  for 
flowers. 

It  was  very  gratifying  to  notice  the 
number  of  pretty  flowers  which  were 
raised  in  the  village  in  spite  of  this, 
and  which  were  brought  in  for  dec- 
oration at  the  faH  show. 

During  the  summer  the  commit- 
tees watched  the  lots  and  the  village 
gardener  assisted  everybody  with  ad- 
vice as  to  what  and  where  to  plant. 

The  fair  was  advertised  by  hand- 
bills and  held  at  the  schoolhouse. 

The  ladies  of  the  S.  & R.  Club  as- 
sisted by  the  teachers,  took  charge 
of  the  decorations  and  arrangements 
of  the  exhibit.  There  were  276  in- 
dividual exhibits  and  34  different 
kinds  of  vegetables  in  the  competi- 
tion. The  judges  were  from  Nekoosa 
and  Grand  Rapids,  and  the  Nekoosa- 
Edwards  Paper  Company  put  up 
$225  in  cash  prizes  which  were  given 
out  at  the  public  Entertainment  the 
same  night. 

We  had  about  2,000  visitors  from 
the  viflage  and  vicinity. 

We  hope  to  be  able  to  hold  similar 
competitions  and  fairs  every  year  as 
we  have  found  that  they  have  had  a 
marked  influence  on  the  civic  pride 
of  our  village  people.  This  last  sum- 
mer, in  addition  to  having  one  of  the 
cleanest  and  neatest  villages  in  the 
state,  we  raised  enough  potatoes  and 
vegetables  to  last  us  until  next  year. 

A great  many  rural  schools  and  country  high-schools,  in  all 
parts  of  Wisconsin,  yearly  hold  fairs  in  which  whole  com- 
munities or  neighborhoods  participate.  An  account  written  by 
a rural  teacher  gives  a fairly  good  idea  of  the  nature  of  a fair 
organized  by  a small  rural  school. 

RURAL  SCHOOL  FAIR  IN 
BARABOO  COMMUNITY 
(SAUK  COUNTY)— 1917 

For  the  last  three  years  we  have 
held  a school  fair  in  the  fall  and  I 
shall  attempt  to  tell  you  the  most 
helpful  parts  of  each. 

People  in  the  community  are  be- 
ginning to  speak  of  the  event  as 
something  of  certainty,  as  they  do 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


of  the  county  fair.  This  is  encour- 
agement in  itself,  as  it  manifests  in- 
terest. 

The  fair  was  held  to  interest  the 
pupils  in  the  selection  of  fruits,  vege- 
tables, corn  and  potatoes,  also  to  en- 
courage neater  school  work;  e.  g., 
composition,  maps,  drawings. 

The  pupils  made  a pumpkin  invi- 
tation for  every  home  in  the  district. 
Notices  of  the  event  were  sent  to  the 
local  newspapers  and  some  of  the 
pupils  used  our  large  type  and  print- 
ed a sign  which  they  posted  at  the 
crossroads. 

One  year  we  charged  10  cents  ad- 
mission, another  we  sold  the  baking 
and  sewing,  while  some  of  the  pupils 
had  a wild  man’s  cage,  others  a fat 
lady  show,  others  a fortune  teller's 
tent,  and  others  a rag  doll  throw 
with  the  prize  an  apple.  These  at- 
tractions were  held  in  the  basement 
of  the  building,  each  costing  1 cent 
and  affording  a great  deal  of  amuse- 
ment. 

The  eighth  grade  was  divided  and 
each  had  a department  to  superin- 
tend with  the  privilege  of  calling  up- 
on others  to  help.  The  teachers  acted 
as  a “walking  encyclopedia”  to  an- 
swer all  troublesome  questions  dur- 
ing this  time. 

The  pupils  of  the  lower  grades 
brought  leaves,  flags,  and  corn  for 
decorations. 

The  school  work  was  judged  by 
one  of  the  county  supervisors,  fruits 
and  vegetables  by  the  principal  of 
the  county  training  school,  and  cook- 
ing and  sewing  by  a competent  wo- 
man from  outside  the  district. 

Our  work  was  arranged  in  depart- 
ments, department  I being  school 
work;  department  II,  cooking;  de- 
partment III,  sewing;  department  IV, 
fruits  and  vegetables;  and  depart- 
ment V,  largest  fruits  and  vegetables. 
Each  pupil  had  a number  and  all 
exhibits  were  tagged  thus: 


Pupil’s  Number 


Dept.  I 

Best  Map 

Sauk 

County 

. .No.  16 

This  made  judging  fair. 


The  material  was  arranged  by  the 
superintendents  of  the  various  de- 
partments. 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


11 


No  money  prizes  were  offered. 

A blue  ribbon  signified  first  prize, 
a red  one,  second.  It  hardly  seems  to 
me  the  proper  thing  to  offer  money 
as  prizes  at  these  district  fairs,  as 
the  fair  itself  is  to  teach  the  pupil 
to  take  a greater  interest  in  the  larg- 
er exhibit  at  the  county  fair  and 
there  win  money.  A ribbon  means 
as  much  or  more  to  our  pupils  as 
money  does  to  those  who  exhibit  at 
the  large  fairs.  We  offered  a prize 
of  a book  to  the  pupil  receiving  the 
greatest  number  of  blue  and  red  rib- 
bons. This  caused  some  rivalry. 

When  admission  was  charged  we 
cleared  about  $13.  We  paid  for  rib- 
bons, prize  and  a few  other  expenses 
and  then  the  money  for  necessary 
school  material,  being  careful  to  ren- 
der an  account  to  the  school  board. 

The  most  successful  feature  of 
these  fairs  is  the  spirit  of  coopera- 
tion gained  between  pupil,  teacher 
and  parent.  The  pupil  becomes  in- 
terested in  the  things  the  parent 
must  work  with,  thus  creating  an  at- 
mosphere of  sympathy  for  each  oth- 
er’s work.  After  looking  at  a display 
of  school  work,  the  parent  often  ex- 
presses a desire  to  see  the  work  as 
it  is  carried  on  in  school  and  very 
often  visits  school  later  in  the  year. 

Pupils  become  deep’y  interested  in 
the  local  fairs  and  note  the  manner 
and  arrangement  of  the  work,  but 
the  greatest  success  lies  in  the  fact, 
that  although  many  pupils  become 
rivals  for  the  coveted  prize,  there  is 
no  enmity  shown  and  all  are  friend- 
ly. 

It  is  the  wish  of  all  that  another 
fair  may  be  held  during  the  coming 
year. 

One  of  the  best  high-school  fairs  in  the  state  is  held  each 
year  at  Livingston  (Grant  County).  This  is  a newspaper  ac- 
count of  one  held  recently : 

LIVINGSTON  HIGH-SCHOOL  FAIR 

“Could  I enter  some  buckwheat  at 
the  fair?’’  “Do  you  have  to  know 
the  name  of  your  pumpkin  if  you 
take  it  to  the  fair?”  “Can  I bring 
my  rabbits  over?’’  These  are  some 
of  the  questions  which  the  Living- 
ston boys  were  asking  before  the  day 
set  for  their  school  fair. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


Every  year  the  agricultural  high 
school  at  Livingston,  holds  a high- 
school  fair  which  is  a community 
fair  as  well.  Farmers  and  breeders 
from  the  surrounding  country  bring 
their  stock,  and  many  of  the  exhibits 
would  put  some  of  our  county  fairs 
to  shame.  There  is  no  admission 
charged,  the  premium  money  being 
raised  by  subscription  among  the  lo- 
cal business  men  and  farmers.  Ev- 
eryone in  the  community  is  interest- 
ed in  the  event  and  is  behind  it. 

This  year  one  of  the  interesting 
features  of  the  fair  was  a stock 
judging  contest  conducted  by  Profes- 
sor J.  A.  James  of  the  agricultural 
college.  High-school  judging  teams 
from  Dodgeville,  Cobb,  Montfort, 
and  Livingston  competed  for  a fine, 
registered  Jersey  ca’f.  The  teams 
placed  the  cattle  classes  and  Mont- 
fort won  the  calf,  with  Livingston  a 
close  second.  The  individual  con- 
test for  boys  under  16  years  of  age 
was  won  by  Nagel  from  the  Cobb 
school. 

The  usual  good  display  of  horses 
and  cattle  was  in  evidence  this  year, 
competition  being  especially  strong 
in  some  of  the  horse  classes  as  well 
as  among  the  da!ry  breeds.  The 
poultry  classes  were  not  so  well  filled 
but  the  quality  of  those  exhibited 
was  outstanding. 

One  class  of  exhibits  open  only  to 
the  high-school  pupils  was  that  of 
home  project  work  which  had  been 
done  in  connection  with  the  regular 
high-school  work.  Products  and  re- 
ports of  the  work  were  shown.  First 
prize  in  this  class  went  to  Will 
Trankle  on  his  sample  of  corn,  and 
the  second  to  Miss  V.  Wilkins  on  her 
Jersey  calf. 

We  believe  that  such  a fair  as  this 
is  the  kind  that  should  find  a place 
in  more  communities  throughout  the 
country.  Such  fairs  stimulate  local 
competition  between  the  fathers  as 
well  as'between  the  juniors,  and  the 
result  is  a better  class  of  farm  stock 
and  a better  quality  of  farming.  You 
other  juniors,  are  you  having  school 
fairs  this  year?  If  not,  why  not  try 
to  get  your  teacher  interested  in  it? 
If  you  can  interest  them,  possibly 
you  can  have  one  next  year.  Re- 
member, that  you  will  have  to  lay 
-your  plans  this  winter  or  else  you 
won’t  be  ready  with  a first-class  ex- 
hibit next  fall. 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


13 


In  many  rural  communities  throughout  the  state  the  interest 
in  local  fairs  is  so  keen  that  associations  are  organized  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  conducting  the  fairs  from  year  to  year.  This 
clipping  gives  a description  of  the  origin  of  the  fair  associa- 
tion at  Pigeon  Falls,  Trempealeau  County,  in  1916: 

PIGEON  FALLS  FAIR 

The  Pigeon  Falls  Fair  Association 
met  at  Pigeon  Falls  last  Saturday 
and  voted  to  make  a permanent  or- 
ganization with  regu'ar  meetings 
twice  a year  and  oftener  if  it  seems 
advisable.  E.  A.  Hegge  was  elected 
president;  H.  E.  Hanson,  vice-presi- 
dent, and  J.  J.  Staff,  Jr.,  secretary 
and  treasurer.  A program  commit- 
tee consisting  of  Misses  Clara  Eid 
and  Dora  Brandon,  and  Melvin  Moe 
was  elected  to  prepare  a list  of  prizes 
to  be  given  at  the  spring  meeting  and 
also  to  arrange  for  the  fall  meeting, 
which  is  to  be  more  on  the  order  of  . 
an  agricultural  fair  than  school  ex- 
hibits. The  treasurer’s  report  showed 
a balance  of  about  $25  from  the 
last  meeting,  so  every  one  is  very 
hopeful  for  the  future.  Larger  prizes 
and  greater  range  of  subjects  can  be 
taken  in,  and  the  who’e  affair  can 
be  carried  on  a better  basis.  The 
meeting  adjourned  till  the  first  Sat- 
urday in  March,  when  a constitution 
and  by-laws  will  be  adopted  and  a 
name  chosen  to  more  fitly  describe 
the  organization.  Every  one  in  the 
town  of  Pigeon,  who  is  interested,  is 
I invited  to  be  present  at  the  March 
l meeting. 

Whether  the  community  fair  is  organized  by  a club  or  fair 
association,  it  is  very  essential  that  all  parts  of  the  community 
in  which  the  fair  is  held,  be  well  represented  on  the  fair  or- 
ganization committee.  In  case  six  neighborhoods  combine  to 
produce  a community  fair,  there  should  be  at  least  six  mem- 
bers on  the  committee,  one  from  each  neighborhood. 

Obtaining  funds  for  the  fair.  The  funds  for  the  community 
fair  may  be  obtained  in  a variety  of  ways.  Each  community 
has  its  favorite  method.  In  Kiel  (Manitowoc  County)  the 
money  for  the  annual  fair  is  raised  by  township  tax.  At  the 
spring  town  meeting  in  1917  the  town  appropriated  $50  for 
prizes.  In  Rio  (Columbia  County)  the  money  for  the  fair  was_ 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


obtained  by  subscription  from  the  business  men  of  the  town. 
This  plan  works  fairly  well  if  the  subscriptions  are  taken  up 
first  in  a business-like  way,  and  not  afterwards,  in  a begging 
fashion. 

Some  committees  endeavor  to  make  their  fairs  self-sup- 
porting. The  Windsor  (Dane  County)  Fair  Association  gets 
out  an  annual  fair  premium  book  in  which  are  advertisements. 
At  the  Black  Hawk  (Sauk  County)  Fair,  expenses  were  met 
by  the  sale  of  candy  and  a small  admission  fee.  At  Rio  an  ad- 
mission charge  was  made  for  a home  talent  play  and  dance 
given  in  connection  with  the  fair.  At  Juneau  (Dodge  County), 
the  sale  of  300  tickets  brought  $30,  which  paid  the  fair  ex- 
penses. At  the  Holcombe  (Chippewa  County)  Fair,  a somewhat 
different  arrangement  was  provided.  To  quote  from  one  of  the 
organizers : 

We  made  no  charge  for  entries,  nor  did  we  charge  for 
the  exhibition.  The  agricultural  building  people  were 
met  by  a man  stationed  at  a desk  who  requested  everyone 
to  register,  and  if  any  one  so  desired,  he  could  give  25 
cents,  or  such  a matter,  for  the  benefit  of  the  farmers’ 
club  which  arranged  the  fair.  In  this  manner  we  raised 
a trifle  over  $200.  When  a person  registered,  he  was 
given  a tag  which  read,  “I  have  registered,  have  you?” 

In  some  instances  money  is  raised  by  an  auction  sale  at  the 
close  of  the  fair  of  the  vegetables  and  fruit  products  exhibited. 
Product  entrance  fees  are  also  sometimes  charged. 

The  following  financial  statement  of  the  Fourth  Annual 
Market  Day  of  Pepin  (Pepin  County)  may  be  of  value  in  show- 
ing something  about  the  disposal  of  fair  funds : 

We  publish  herewith  the  financial  statement,  of  the  financial 
committee,  showing  the  amount  of  funds  handled,  the  sources 
from  which  it  was  received,  and  its  disposition.  The  committee 
finds  that,  after  awarding  prizes  as  liberally  as  consistent,  they 
still  have  on  hand  $16.86  which  will  be  held  in  a fund  for  the 
conduct  of  a bigger  and  better  Market  Day  next  year. 

* Treasurer’s  Statement 


Balance  on  hand  $ 1.51 

Merchant’s  donation  36.00 

Exhibits  uncalled  for  2.95 


$40.46 

Advertising  $ 4.25 

Incidentals  .25 

Cash  prizes  paid  18.50 

Postage  .60 


$23.60 

Balance  on  hand  $16.86 


Treasurer 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


15 


The  Westboro  (Taylor  County)  people  describe  their  fair 
finance  arrangements  as  follows: 

We  usually  spend  a very  small 
amount  of  money,  not  more  than  $15. 

This  year  we  had  at  the  spring  town 
meeting  a resolution  passed  appro- 
priating $150  by  the  town  and  $50 
by  the  schools  to  put  over  the  con- 
solidated plowing  contest  and  fair. 

We  also  took  up  a small  subscription 
among  our  merchants  to  get  funds 
for  a lunch.  In  all  we  had  about 
$235. 

The  money  we  had  was  spent 
about  as  follows: 

Sulky  p’ow  for  plowing  contest  $25 


Buns,  butter,  etc 20 

Moving  pictures 10 

Printing  and  advertising 25 

Band 80 

Lumber-making  exhibit  cases  . . 15 

Prizes  for  school  exhibits 25 


Will  give  about  $25  in  addition 
to  purchase  a bull  for  plowing 

contest  25 

We  can  put  over  a fine  community 
fair  for  about  $150  another  year  and 
expect  to  give  very  good  prizes.  It 
does  a lot  of  good,  we  find,  in  bring- 
ing the  people  of  the  country  to 
know  one  another  and  show  them 
that  to  live  right  we  must  think  of 
each  other  and  get  together  often. 

Location  of  the  fair.  The  fair  is  usually  held  at  some 
central  point  in  the  community.  Fairs  of  neighborhood  size 
usually  center  around  the  rural  school.  Larger  fairs  are  gen- 
erally most  successful  when  held  at  the  trade  center  where 
farmers  and  town  business  men  may  enjoy  the  event  together. 

In  some  cases  the  fair  is  held  in  the  public  square  or  along 
the  main  street  of  the  town.  Booths  are  then  arranged  in  the 
windows  of  the  stores  located  along  the  main  street,  or  in  roped- 
off  spaces  in  the  street. 

Generally,  however,  either  the  fair  is  held  in  some  building, 
such  as  the  farm  exhibit  building,  clubhouse,  schoolhouse,  town 
hall,  or  opera  house,  or  the  exhibits  are  placed  in  tents  and 
open  air  booths.  At  times  a successful  combination  of  these 
various  methods  is  effected. 

Time  for  holding  the  fair.  The  time  for  holding  the  fair  is 
considered  by  most  committees  *to  be  some  time  during  late 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


August  or  in  September  or  October.  In  case  the  fair  is  held  early 
in  September,  the  community  has  the  advantage  of  being  es- 
pecially well  prepared  for  exhibiting  at  the  county  or  state 
fair.  However,  it  is  possible  that  winter  may  be  the  most  con- 
venient season  for  holding  a fair  in  some  communities.  In  such 
cases,  straw  rides  and  winter  sports,  such  as  ski  tournaments, 
are  features  which  usually  add  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  occasion. 

Business  of  fair  committees.  It  is  absolutely  essential  that 
a community  fair,  whatever  its  size,  be  thoroughly  and  com- 
pletely organized  far  in  advance  of  its  production.  It  is  the 
guarding  against  “last-moment  methods,’ ’ “ pick-up ” make- 
shifts, and  second-rate  substitutes  that  makes  the  community 
fair  an  event  of  dignity  and  a source  of  pride  to  those  parti- 
cipating. 

The  executive  committee.  The  executive  committee  con- 
sisting of  the  president,  secretary,  and  treasurer  of  the  organiz- 
ing body,  as  well  as  the  heads  of  all  the  main  committees,  should 
meet  early  and  often  to  work  out  carefully  each  detail  of  the 
event,  paying  special  attention  to  arrangements  for  general  su- 
pervision control  of,  finances  and  selection  of  judges.  A selec- 
tion from  the  fair  annual  of  the  Worthwhile  (Como,  Walworth 
County)  Farmers’  Club  shows  plans  and  directions  such  as  will 
be  worked  out  by  an  enterprising  executive  committee : 

THIRD  ANNUAL  FAIR 
of  the 

WORTHWHILE  FARMERS’  CLUB 
Rules  and  Regulations 

The  club  will  take  every  precaution  for  the  safekeeping  of 
all  exhibits  after  arrival  and  arrangement,  but  will  not  be 
responsible  for  loss  or  damage. 

Premiums  are  to  be  awarded  only  when  articles  are  worthy 
of  merit. 

Entries  will  be  divided  into  two  classes:  Junior,  18  years  or 
under;  senior,  19  years  or  over. 

Be  sure  your  exhibit  is  numbered  and  placed  by  superin- 
tendent before  leaving. 

All  advertisers  wishing  ground  space  app’y  to  Charles 
Turner. 

Dinner  will  be  served  at  noon  and  in  the  evening. 

Program  of  sports  will  be  given  in  the  afternoon. 

Program  will  be  given  at  8:15  in  the  evening. 

After  program  all  exhibits  donated  to  club  will  be  sold  at 
auction.  * 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


17 


In  naming  judges,  the  committee  should  as  far  as  possible 
depend  upon  farmers,  housewives,  and  business  men  within 
their  own  county.  When  judges  are  invited  from  surrounding 
communities,  the  experience  and  confidence  thus  exchanged  are 
valuable  to  all  concerned. 

Nominating  committee.  In  order  to  get  the  fair  started  a 
nominating  committee  is  usually  appointed  by  the  president  of 
the  organizing  body.  This  committee  should  be  representative 
of  the  different  parts  of  the  community.  The  duties  of  the 
nominating  committee  include  the  selection  of  the  heads  of 
fair  committees  and  possibly  the  selection  of  other  members  of 
the  various  committees.  However,  this  latter  is  sometimes  left 
to  the  committee  heads,  with  the  understanding  that  each  com- 
mittee should  include  representatives  from  each  section  of  the 
whole  community.  This  list  of  superintendents  from  the  Worth- 
while Farmers’  Annual  may  prove  suggestive  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  committee  chairmen. 

THIRD  ANNUAL  FAIR 
• of  the 

WORTHWHILE  FARMERS’  CLUB 
Superintendents 


School  work  Mrs.  Ed.  Hicks 

Vegetables  and  fruits Chas.  Tracy 

Domestic  science Mrs.  John  Matteson 

Grains  and  corn  contests  Frank  Drake 

Livestock  Leo  Dunlap 

Pantry  stores  Mrs.  Carl  Gray 

Fancywork  Mrs.  Chester  Doan 

Art  and  cut  flowers Mrs.  M.-C.  Flack 

Farm  machinery  and  advert'sing  ex- 
hibits   ’..Chas.  Turner 

Novelty  booth  Mrs.  Frank  Abbott 

Candy  and  refreshment  booths.  .Miss  Belle  Ellsworth 

Dinner  committee  Mrs.  John  Brooks 

Grounds  James  Henderson 

Marshal  of  day Howard  Reynolds 


It  is  good  advertising  to  have  as  many  people  as  possible  on 
the  various  fair  committees.  It  adds  to  the  interest  of  prep- 
aration. The  fair  is  more  talked  about  and  the  results  are 
more  keenly  anticipated  when  every  family  in  the  community 
does  its  special  share  in  the  work  of  arranging  for  the  com- 
munity event. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


The  nominating  committee  must  also  keep  in  mind  the  psy- 
chology of  suggestion  when  requesting  individuals  to  accept 
the  chairmanship  of  a committee.  A person  should  not  be  urged 
to  take  part  in  the  fair  because  it  is  such  a small  event  that 
it  will  take  little  of  his  time  or  energy.  Worthwhile  people 
are  not  interested  in  trivial  events  that  require  little  energy 
or  thought.  It  takes  a big,  going  movement  to  excite  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  dynamic  people  who  will  really  get  behind  a 
fair  and  make  it  a success.  So  the  nominating  committee  should 
always  present  the  bigness  of  the  proposition.  The  fair  should 
be  featured  as  an  event  so  important,  so  big,  that  no  person  in 
the  community  can  afford  to  stay  out  of  it,  or  once  in  it,  fail 
to  do  his  super-best  to  come  up  to  the  fine  average  of  the  whole 
production. 


How  to  Advertise  the  Fair 

Publicity  committee.  In  order  to  build  up  the  idea  of  big- 
ness in  the  minds  of  the  community,  the  nominating  committee 
will  have  to  have  adequate  support  from  a lively  publicity  com- 
mittee. It  is  usually  the  duty  of  the  publicity  committee  to  get 
out  in  some  form  a fair  annual  and  score  card  from  four  to 
six  months  before  the  fair. 

The  fair  annual,  if  possible,  should  contain  the  names  of  the 
fair  committees,  the  premium  list,  the  score  cards,  rules  and 
regulations.  It  may  also  contain  slogans,  songs,  pictures,  and 
short  articles  to  boost  the  fair.  It  may  or  may  not  include  paid 
advertisements. 

Score  cards  which  may  be  used  in  connection  with  the  fair 
may  be  obtained  from  the  county  agent  or  the  college  of  agri- 
culture. 

A fair  calendar,  made  at  the  close  of  one  fair  and  extending 
to  the  date  of  the  next  fair  may  be  published  by  the  fair  pub- 
licity committee  with  good  results.  Such  a calendar  may  con- 
tain suggestions,  hints,  and  directions  for  the  different  sea- 
sons of  the  year  concerning  preparation  of  exhibits,  steps  in 
various  contests,  important  meetings  of  various  committees,  and 
dates  for  beginning  various  entertainment  preparations.  It 
may  also  contain  photographs  of  former  fair  exhibits  and  fea- 
tures, as  well  as  slogans,  yells,  and  colors. 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


19 


mmmm 


lI,«ua/  p£ 


«rmers 


foe;*™**  AU^'  l 

OF  THE  | 

KINGSLEY 

COUNTRY  LIFE 

CLUB 


y SCHOOL  ©ROUNOS 

T.  20  AND  21 
1 9 1 7 


FIG.  3.— SAMPLES  OF  WISCONSIN  COMMUNITY  CLUB  FAIR  PROGRAMS 

Each  community  will  have  its  own  Ideas  of  booklets,  catalogs,  or  premium  lists. 
They  need  not  be  expensive. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


“ Write-ups.’ * Much  depends  on  the  snappy  entertaining 
“write-ups”  concerning  the  fair  which  are  put  in  the  local 
papers  during  the  weeks  preceding  the  event  by  the  publicity 
committee.  These  should  include  short  items  on  such  matters 
as  features  to  be  stressed  at  the  coming  fair;  entries  expected, 
important  preparations,  progress  of  contests ; selection  of  judges 
and  speakers;  and  the  plans  of  near-by  communities  for  similar 
fairs. 

These  two  notices  concerning  the  Linn  (Zenda,  Walworth 
County)  Fair  doubtless  made  each  reader  look  forward  to  it 
with  keen  anticipation. 


LINN  FARMERS  HOLD  A FAIR  I 
THIS  WEEK 

Lakeview  Club  Stages  Its  Third 
Annual  Show  Friday  and 
Saturday 

The  Lakeview  Farmers’  Club  of 
the  town  of  Linn  will  ho’d  the  third 
annual  fair  at  the  Linn  town  hall  in 
Zenda,  on  Friday  and  Saturday,  Sep- 
tember 29  and  30.  * 

The  Linn  farmers’  club  holds  an 
enviable  reputation  among  the  farm- 
ers’ clubs  in  the  county.  It  was  the 
first  real  farmers'  club  to  be  organ- 
ized, and  the  first  to  build  and  main- 
tain a hall  for  its  meetings.  Real 
progress  has  marked  it  from  its  or- 
ganization. It  has  made  steady  gains 
in  membership,  and  worked  for  all 
that  was  for  the  best  interest  of  the 
whole  community. 

But  the  annual  fair  has  been  one 
of  the  biggest  events  of  the  whole 
year  for  the  Linn  club,  and  it  has 
been  a success  each  year  too.  This 
year  this  event  promises  to  be  bigger 
and  better  than  ever,  and  many  new 
features  have  been  added.  Both 
days  will  be  devoted  to  the  exhibi- 
tion of  farm  produce,  sewing  school 
work,  fancywork,  etc.  On  Saturday 
a big  athletic  program  will  be  an 
added  feature. 

Everyone  is  invited  to  attend,  see 
the  exhibits,  and  help  make  the  fair 
a success.  It  will  be  time  well  spent, 
to  say  the  ^ast. 

(Elkhorn  Independent). 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


21 


FARMERS’  CLUB  ANNUAL  FAIR 

To  be  Held  at  Zenda,  Wis.,  Friday 

and  Saturday,  September  29-30 

Read  Their  Ad 

The  annual  fair  of  the  Lake  View 
Farmers’  Club  will  be  held  this  year 
on  Friday  and  Saturday,  September 
29  and  30,  at  Zenda,  in  the  Linn  town 
hall. 

The  Lake  View  club  is  one  of  the 
strongest  of  the  many  splendid  farm- 
ers’ clubs  in  this  county  and  the 
fame  of  their  annual  fair  is  spread- 
ing all  over  the  county. 

The  executive  committee,  realizing 
the  value  of  newspaper  publicity,  has 
this  year  decided  to  use  considerable 
space  in  the  leading  papers  of  the 
county,  and  on  another  page  of  this 
paper  will  be  found  the  advertise- 
ment of  the  annual  fair. 

Many  new  features  are  to  be  add- 
ed to  the  program  this  year  and  on 
both  days  there  will  be  something  to 
interest  all.  On  both  evenings  there 
will  be  given  a home  talent  play. 

There  will  be  a big  display  of  farm 
produce,  fancy  sewing,  school  work, 
and  other  products  of  this  prosper- 
ous community. 

Remember  these  dates  and  attend 
the  fair.  You  will  be  surprised  at 
the  fine  exhibits  and  the  large  at- 
tendance. The  officers  and  the  ex- 
ecutive committee  have  worked  hard 
to  make  the  affair  a success  and  de- 
serve the  patronage  and  support  of 
the  public. 

(Delavan  Republican.) 

Posters.  The  providing  of  posters  will  challenge  to  the  ut- 
most the  ingenuity  of  a publicity  committee.  The  field  from 
which  to  select  is  wide.  The  forms  which  the  posters  may  take 
are  different  as  are  communities  themselves.  However,  it  is 
well  to  keep  in  mind  some  main  points  such  as  clearness  of  type, 
large  plain  lettering,  uncluttered  spacing  and  striking  make-up. 
A few  photographs  here  given  show  the  poster  in  various  forms 
and  sizes. 

Naming  the  local  fair.  If  the  fair  has  not  already  been 
given  a special  name,  the  publicity  committee  may  have  the 
opportunity  of  selecting  and  popularizing  an  appropriate  and 
suitable  name. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


A list  of  actual  names  of  fairs  may  be  found  suggestive  to 
those  working  for  distinctive  fair  titles: 

Fall  Festival  of  the  Star  Community  Club 
Amenia  Field  Day 

Spring  Valley  Harvest  Home  Festival 

Livingston  High  School  Agricultural  Fair 

October  Festival  and  Institute 

Oakdale  Rural  School  Fair 

Flowing  Match  and  Fair 

Boys’  and  Girls’  Show 

Neighborhood  Fair 

Grange  Fair 

The  Apple  Show 

The  Mid-Winter  Fair 

The  County  Products’  Show 

Rock  Creek  Township  Fair 

Farmers’  Play  Day 

Creamery  Picnic 


Slogans  are  sometimes  useful  in  “ write-ups’ [ and  general 
publicity  work.  Here  is  a list  of  slogans  that  have  been  actually 
used  and  that  may  be  found  adaptable  to  the  needs  of  the  pub- 
licity committee: 

“Every  Farm  a Factory.” 

“Get  acquainted  with  your  neighbor.  You  might  like  him.” 

“The  Opportunity  of  the  Town  Lies  in  the  Country.” 

“Get  to  Know  Four  Times  as  Many  People  as  You  Do  Now.” 

“Be  a Booster,  not  a Kicker.” 

“Do  It  for  Your  Home  Town.” 

“Better  Farming,  Better  Business,  Better  Living.” 

“A  Greater  Community,  Agriculturally,  Industrially,  Socially, 
Morally.” 

“Let  Good  Neighbors  Become  Better  Neighbors.” 

“Live  Stock  and  Live  People.” 

“We  Must  Beat  Our  Own  Record.” 

“We  Can  Do  It  Ourselves.” 

“There  Is  More  to  Farming  Than  Just  Knowing  How  to  Farm.” 

“Add  Sociability  to  Business  and  Get  Better  Business.” 


Photographs.  The  publicity  committee  should  be  con- 
stantly on  the  lookout  for  good  photographs  on  subjects  such 
as  these: 

Prize  winners  with  prize  products  and  prizes 

Contestants  working  for  results,  as  gardening,  calf  feeding  at  home 

Exhibits  at  the  fairs  of  former  years 

Other  features  of  former  fairs 

Judges  and  speakers  of  coming  fair 

Some  new  fair  building  or  fairground  improvement 

A new  machine  to  be  exhibited 

A well-known  dairy  champion  to  be  again  exhibited 
The  school  children  getting  ready  for  the  fair,  building  a bird 
house 

Scene  from  home  talent  play  to  be  presented 
Comparative  surveys — watch  for  improvement! 

Catchwords  are  sometimes  of  value  in  attracting  the  atten- 
tion in  1 4 write-ups  ” and  handmade  posters.  Pictures  put  with 
these  phrases  may  serve  many  advertising  purposes: 


'The  Rural  Community  Fair 


23 


“Meet  me  at  the  Community  Fair” 

“I’ll  be  at  the  Community  Fair” 

“Look  here,  fellows,  are  you  getting  ready?” 

“I  would  live  in  a house  by  the  side  of  the  road” 

“The  Community  Parade” 

“We’ve  found  a way  to  keep  them  on  the  farm.  Have  you?” 
“Why  not  join  that  garden  contest  now?” 

“You’ll  be  surprised!” 

“Come  and  meet  your  neighbor — he  will  be  there!” 

“Should  Auld  Acquaintance  be  forgot?” 

“All  aboard  the  Fair  Special!” 


Special  devices.  Special  devices  in  advertising  the  fair  will 
be  originated  by  every  publicity  committee  for  itself.  In  Wood 
County  a post  card  like  the  following  has  proved  a favorite 
method  of  working  up  interest  and  enthusiasm : 

WOOD  COUNTY  BOYS’  AND  GIRLS’  CLUB  WORK 
To  Farm  Bureau  Members,  Teachers,  etc. 


WHAT? 

WHERE? 

WHEN? 

PRICE? 

EXHIBITS  ? 

EXHIBITORS? 

TIME? 

FEATURES? 

FUN? 

PRIZES? 

ENROLLMENT 

SUPERVISED? 

JUDGES? 

JOIN? 

COMING? 


A Big  County  Exhibit 

City  Hall  Place 

Saturday,  October  27,  1917 

None,  and  No  Side  Shows 

Corn,  Potatoes,  Poultry,  Pigs,  Apples 

Club  Members  of  Wood  County 

9 a.  m.  to  4 p.  m. 

Judging  Contest,  Club  EXHIBITS 
Auto  Trip  by  Board  of  Commerce 
84  Offered,  All  Worth  Winning 
Club  Members  for  Next  Year 
By  County  Agents  and  Farm  Bureau 
Brownfield,  Cook,  and  Tuckwiller 
The  Farm  Bureau  and  Support  Work 
SURE!  Everybody  will  be  HERE! 

R.  L.  Buchanan, 

County  Agent 


A “fair  alphabet”  telling  of  fair  features  may  sometimes  be 
chosen  as  a favorite  method  of  advertising,  as: 

“ALFALFA  DAY”  on  Wednesday 
“BETTER  BABIES”  at  the  Fair 
“CHOICE  FRUIT” 

“DAIRY  TESTS” 

(etc.) 


Such  leading  statements  as  these  will  attract  attention  in 
newspaper  items. 

“Come  to  see  the  Scrub  Cow’s  Trial.” 

“What  the  Community  Fair  will  do.” 

“We  will  show  you  at  the  coming  fair  the  two  best  cooks  in  the 
country.” 

“Wednesday  is  Crop  Improvement  Day,  and  Thursday  Is  Good 
Roads  Day.” 

“See  the  boys  who  have  made  100  bushels  of  corn  on  an  acre.” 


Booster  campaign.  A publicity  committee  may  sometimes 
find  it  advisable  to  organize  a regular  “Booster  Campaign” 


24  Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 

calling  upon  special  talent  for  help  in  different  lines.  In  this 
campaign  booster  and  rally  meetings  may  be  held  where  songs 
and  yells  are  learned.  Special  stunts  are  planned  and  talks  are 
given  by  enthusiastic  boosters.  In  Waupaca  (Waupaca  County) 
an  especially  original  plan  was  worked  out.  One  of  the  or- 
ganizers describes  it  this  way: 

As  to  advertising,  a campaign  was  carried  on  by  which 
each  committee  plugged  for  its  exhibits  and  made  prizes 
to  people  bringing  best  assortment  of  exhibits.  Another 
good  feature  which  we  brought  out  was  that  whenever 
any  of  the  individual  agricultural  students  or  members 
of  committees  visited  at  a rural  school  or  social  center 
meeting,  they  advertised  the  fair  by  a duet-dialogue  on 
the  things  to  be  seen  at  the  fair.  This  made  a great  hit 
and  brought  loads  of  people  who  otherwise,  I think, 
would  not  have  been  there. 

In  Westboro  (Taylor  County),  they  made  special  use  of  hand- 
bills in  advertising  their  fair,  as  may  be  seen  in  this  account : 

We  got  out  a great  number  of  cards  about  one  month 
before  our  fair  was  held  and  had  these  cards  posted 
throughout  the  county  telling  all  to  come  to  Westboro 
on  a certain  date;  also  had  the  county  agent  write  an  ar- 
ticle to  the  county  papers  explaining  the  fair.  We  used 
the  slogan — "Westboro  Does  Things,  Come  and  See.”  We 
have  used  this  for  a number  of  years  on  good  roads  work 
and  it  came  in  handily  this  time  as  the  town  has  a repu- 
tation for  good  roads  and  citizens  were  willing  to  work 
to  show  we  could  do  anything  that  we  undertook. 

We  put  our  handbills  at  the  county  fair,  put  up  window 
bills,  and  in  all  places  possible  kept  our  bills  moving  for 
a month. 

A regular  farmhouse  to  farmhouse  canvass  may  be  made  by 
booster  campaign  leaders  telling  of  expected  features  and  in- 
viting people  to  enter  products  at  the  fair. 

A button  which  says,  ‘‘I  am  going  to  the  Community  Fair. 
Are  your’  might  sometimes  prove  a help.  Stickers  with  pic- 
tures of  some  prominent  fair  features,  together  with  the  name 
and  date  of  the  fair  may  be  distributed  to  people  in  the  com- 
munity to  use  on  their  cars  and  in  their  correspondence. 

The  boosters  may  wish  to  choose  fair  colors  and  in  this  case 
they  should  see  to  it  that  all  “auto”  banners  advertising  the 
fair,  all  posters,  signposts,  ribbons  for  the  judges,  chairmen, 
and  mixers,  tags,  tickets  and  booth  decorations  carry  out  this 
color  scheme  whenever  possible.  Letters  or  post  cards  may  be 
sent  by  the  boosters  to  former  residents  telling  them  of  the  fair, 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


PIG.  4.— JUDGING  CONTESTS  PLAY  AN  IMPORTANT  PART 

Grains  and  livestock  judging  contests  bring  together  the  best  the  community 
can  produce. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  30? 


so  that  the  home-coming  atmosphere  may  thus  add  charm  to  the 
day’s  events. 

The  follow-up  campaign.  The  publicity  committee  also  has 

charge  of  the  follow-up  campaign,  which  begins  where  the 
booster  campaign  leaves  off.  It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  pub- 
licity committee  to  see  that  everyone  who  comes  to  the  fair 
feels  at  home  and  has  a good  time. 

To  assure  this  spirit  of  cordiality,  some  of  the  most  popular 
people  in  the  community  may  be  asked  to  act  as  booster-guides 
and  mixers  during  the  fair.  These  persons  would  strive  to  get 
people  acquainted  and  still  more  thoroughly  acquainted.  They 
should  do  their  best  to  see  that  the  fair  acts  as  an  educator 
as  well  as  a socializer,  explaining  and  calling  attention  to  fea- 
tures of  interest  and  conducting  special  parties  on  trips  through 
the  grounds. 

The  follow-up  campaign  people  should  also  do  their  best  to 
insure  a feeling  of  good  will  among  contestants,  doing  all  in 
their  power  to  encourage  the  “good  loser”  spirit.  They  should 
take  special  care  that  strangers  are  entertained,  and  that 
the  judges  are  hospitably  received. 

They  should  also  encourage  people  to  think  of  becoming  ex- 
hibitors for  the  next  year’s  fair  and  attempt  to  work  up  in- 
terest in  special  movements  which  the  fair  organizers  are  try- 
ing to  promote  for  the  next  year,  such  as  the  “Know-Your-Kow 
Klub,”  good  roads,  and  farm  accounts. % 

The  publicity  committee  should  also  see  to  it  that  good  pic- 
tures are  taken  of  all  the  attractive  fair  features.  They  may 
be  used  for  cuts  in  ‘ • write-ups,  ’ ’ ■ displays  in  store  windows,  and 
the  publicity  campaign  of  the  next  year.  Last  of  all,  the  pub- 
licity committee  must  not  forget  the  duty  towards  all  those  who 
have  worked  together  to  make  the  fair  a success.  At  best,  after 
the  fair  is  over,  there  are  bound  to  be  some  grievances,  disap- 
pointments, and  worries  among  those  who  have  exhibited,  en- 
tertained, and  worked  for  the  welfare  of  the  community.  A 
printed  word  of  appreciation  and  praise  in  the  local  paper  will 
do  much  to  soften  any  hard  feelings,  and  will  tend  to  leave  all 
with  a feeling  of  satisfaction  and  pleasure  at  having  taken  an 
active  part  in  a successful  enterprise.  With  good  “write-ups” 
like  the  following,  the  people  of  the  community  are  not  likely 
to  give  up  the  fair  the  next  year. 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


27 


I WABENO  SCHOOL  HOLDS 
SECOND  ANNUAL  HARVEST 
FESTIVAL 

The  second  annual  harvest  festival 
held  at  Wabeno  (Forest  County)  on 
Friday  and  Saturday,  October  5 and 
6,  under  the  leadership  of  Principal 
G.  P.  Junkman  and  H.  E.  Weingart- 
ner  of  the  agricultural  department 
of  the  local  high  school,  proved  a 
distinct  success.  The  650  exhibits  in 
all  departments  were  taken  care  of 
in  the  new  town  hall  and  on  a vacant 
lot,  the  entries  being  recorded  by 
the  high-school  teachers  and  pupils, 
ably  assisted  by  citizens,  who  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  success  of 
the  festival.  The  local  civic  clubs 
arranged  the  exhibit  of  domestic 
science  and  fancywork.  Two  busi- 
ness men  and  three  farmers  assisted 
in  planning  and  conducting  the  festi- 
val as  a whole. 

Saturday’s  activities  were  opened 
by  a large  parade  of  children,  floats, 
automobiles,  and  various  comic  and 
patriotic  groups.  The  races,  games, 
band  concerts,  and  patriotic  features 
were  well  received  by  the  large 
crowd  from  all  parts  of  the  township 
and  county.  The  good  quality  and 
excellent  appearance  of  the  exhibits 
attracted  the  favorable  attention  of 
all  in  attendance. 

In  the  evening,  the  public  schools 
gave  a patriotic  program  which 
formed  an  interesting  and  appropri- 
ate closing  feature. 

Such  a cooperative  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  school  and  community 
cannot  but  be  of  much  benefit  to 
both.  The  success  of  this  fair  in  the 
sparsely  settled  “Northland"  indi- 
cates the  possibilities  of  what  may 
be  done  by  schools  in  the  older  and 
more  highly  developed  farming  dis- 
tricts in  Wisconsin.  It  also  goes  to 
show  the  value  of  a live  agricultural 
department  in  the  modern  high- 
school. 


How  to  Produce  and  Stage  the  Fair 

Committee  on  arrangement.  The  committee  on  arrange- 
ment has  the  task  of  planning  the  fairgrounds.  They  must  de- 
cide where  the  different  booths  shall  be  placed,  where  the  en- 
tertainments shall  be  given  and  where  the  outdoor  amusements 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


shall  be  conducted.  They  must  allot  space  to  the  different  de- 
partments and  see  that  material  for  booths  and  decorations  is 
furnished. 

At  the  Black  Hawk  fair,  in  which  five  rural  schools  parti- 
cipated, they  arranged  for  the  placing  of  exhibits  as  follows : 

On  November  3,  bright  and  early,  the  teachers  met  at 
the  hall  and  arranged  the  material.  Leading  from  the 
regular  hall  is  another  hall,  somewhat  smaller,  but  large 
enough.  In  this  the  Black  Hawk  school  board  put  up 
steps  along  the  length  of  the  room,  and  a table  through 
the  center.  On  the  steps  were  the  vegetables,  canned 
fruit  and  baked  stuff,  and  on  the  table  the  manual  train- 
ing work.  On  the  end  walls  we  put  up  sheets,  upon 
which  we  placed  our  school  work  and  sewing. 

If  a color  scheme  for  the  fair  is  chosen,  the  committee  on  ar- 
rangement will  work  with  the  committee  on  publicity  in  mak- 
ing all  parts  of  the  fairground  and  exhibit  rooms  harmonize  as 
far  as  possible. 

Careful  consideration  must  be  given  also  to  the  general  style 
of  arrangement  of  exhibits,  and  instruction  concerning  this 
should  be  included  in  the  fair  annual  and  inserted  in  the  early 
fair  ‘ ‘ write-ups.  ’ ’ Special  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  exhibits  are  not  cluttered  in  unattractive  groups,  but  ar- 
ranged in  classes  and  uniformly  placed. 

The  arrangement  committee  must  also  keep  in  mind  con- 
stantly the  educational  values  of  the  fair,  and  to  this  end  pro- 
vide each  year  for  exhibits  which  particularly  encourage  the 
standardization  of  community  products,  concentrating  on  a few 
varieties  of  breeds  and  emphasizing  uniformity  of  color,  size, 
shape  and  marketing  methods. 

Posters  should  be  attractively  placed  throughout  the  grounds 
calling  attention  to  special  features  such  as  “Weigh  the  milk 
of  each  cow  at  milking  time  ” ; “Do  you  keep  cow  boarders  % ’ ’ 

Slogans,  legends,  signposts,  labeling  placards,  announcements, 
explanations,  and  banners  all  have  their  place  in  making  the  fair 
educational  as  well  as  social,  and  the  use  of  these  should  not 
be  forgotten  by  the  arrangement  committee. 

The  arrangement  committee  must  also  select  the  heads  of 
subcommittees  for  arranging  booths  for  stock,  dairy  products, 
grain,  sewing,  rural  art,  curios,  boys’  and  girls’  departments, 
potato  clubs,  pets,  manual  training  work,  and  school  exhibits. 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


29 


A bulletin  exhibit  of  recent  valuable  publications  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  by  the  State 
Experiment  Station  may  also  be  arranged,  with  some  responsible 


FIG.  5.— READY  FOR  THE  HUNGRY  CROWD 

No  mistake  is  made  when  preparations  are  made  for  feeding  a hungry  countryside. 
Roast  beef  and  mutton  are  ready  for  serving. 


farmer  in  charge  who  will  guarantee  to  send  for  bulletins  for 
which  farmers  sign. 

Other  exhibits,  a little  out  of  the  ordinary,  will  occur  to  the 
committee  as  they  carefully  consider  the  resources  and  needs 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


of  the  community.  Some  such  exhibits  as  these  may  be  worked 
out  if  they  seem  practical  for  the  place  and  time: 


“THE  UNEXPECTED  ALWAYS  HAPPENS”  EXHIBIT 

Reserve  shelf  for  unexpected  guests 
What  to  do  in  case  of  an  accident 
How  to  mend  the  harness 
Substitutes  in  case  some  supply  runs  out 
First  aid  to  the  cow 


DISPLAY  OF  HANDY  DEVICES  FOR  BARN  AND  HOUSE 

A quick  egg-separator  A power  washer  at  work 

A twin  egg-poacher  A self-feeder  for  hogs 


“GOOD  ADVERTISING  FOR 

Approach  to  the  farm 
Bulletin  boards 
Ads  in  local  papers 
Upkeep  of  read 
Farm  name 


THE  FARMERS’  EXHIBITS” 

Farm  stationery 
Standardized  products 
Trade-mark 

“Look  about  your  farm.” 
System  of  farm  accounting 


PICTURE 

GALLERY  EXHIBITS 

Local  events 

Plowing  matches 

Picnics 

Beauty  spots  of  the  community 

Past  fairs 

Sights  of  interest  in 

other  co  in- 

Club meetings 

munities 

Track  meets 

Things  our  community 

is  proud  of 

Singing  festivals 

Copies  of  masterpieces 

MODELS  AND  MINIATURES 
A farm  kitchen  in  1861 

An  enlarged  farmstead  with  better-farmhouse  views 

A typical  dairy  farm  in  county 

A new  successful  type  of  siilo 

Sanitary  poultry  house 

Babcock  tester 

Modern  beehive 

An  ideal  living-room 

Crop  rotations 

A school  playground  as  it  might  be 
Butter  statue  of  famous  cow 

A good  trap  nest,  hen’s  eggs,  model  of  hen,  bag  of  feed 
Home  market  hamper  packed  for  sending 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


31 


DEMONSTRATIONS 

Tractors 

Potato-growing1  experiment  plot 

Milking  machines 

Buttermaking 

Cheesemaking 

Canning  and  cold-packing 

Flower  arrangement 

Picture  framing  and  hanging 

Reforestation 

Gasoline  engines 

Sanitary  dairy 

Selecting  materials  for  clothes  and  table  linen 
Selection  of  seed  corn 
Seed-testing  demonstration 

Demonstration  of  use  of  right  colors  in  and  out  of  the  house 

Apple  packing  demonstrations 

Dynamiting 

Limestone  crushing 

Spraying 

Stock  and  products  judging 

Table  setting 

Baking 

Serving  patriotic  meals 

Getting  the  horse  ready  for  the  fair 

Corn  stringing 

Repairing 


Some  systematic  provision  for  the  entry  and  distribution  of 
exhibits  to  the  various  booths  must  be  made  by  the  arrangement 
committee. 

If  this  part  of  the  fair  is  well  worked  out,  endless  confusion 
and  misunderstanding  will  be  avoided.  There  should,  of  course, 
be  an  entry  register  in  which  all  exhibitors  sign  up  and  are 
given  a number.  All  products  should  be  left  at  some  central 
point,  where  they  are  properly  tagged,  before  being  distributed 
by  one  in  charge  to  the  managers  of  the  various  booths. 

Committees  on  special  contests.  There  are  several  values 
attached  to  special  contests.  Contests  are  usually  educational 
and  include  specific  training.  They  also  arouse  community 
spirit.  They  encourage  better  farming.  They  are  good  ad- 
vertisements for  the  coming  fair  and  they  add  greatly  to  the 
interest  of  the  fair  itself. 

The  important  thing  in  getting  up  contests  is  an  early  start. 
Six  months  before  the  fair  the  special  contest  committee  should 
start  with  the  help  of  the  publicity  committee  in  enlisting  con- 
testants, issuing  terms  of  the  contests,  supervising  any  instruc- 
tion necessary,  such  as  a course  of  lectures  or  a series  of  articles 
in  the  local  paper,  for  contestants.  The  committee  must  also 
inspect  at  frequent  intervals,  the  work  of  the  contestants  in 
such  contests  as  poultry  raising,  garden  making,  lawn  improve 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


ment.  In  some  cases  the  committee  will  also  need  to  supervise 
the  distribution  of  materials,  such  as  seeds,  or  eggs.  Finally, 
the  most  careful  preparation  must  be  made  in  order  that  the 
final  presentation  of  the  contest  shall  work  off  without  a hitch 
at  the  fair. 

The  following  contests  have  been  successfully  staged  in  var- 
ious community  fairs  throughout  the  country: 


FAIR  CONTESTS 


Plowing  matches 
Poultry  raising 
Pig  raising 
Sheep  laising 
Harnessing 
Driving 

Judging  contests  (corn,  horses 
stock-) 

Calf  raising 
Potato  raising 
Tomato  raising 
Onion  raising 
Corn  raising 
Oarden  making 
Road  dragging 
Pest  killing 
Buttermaking 
Roadside  betterment 
Five- acre  contests 
One-acre  contest 
School  children’s  attendance 
Local  rural  photography 
Sanitation 
Health 

Kite-flying  tournament 
Better  babies 
Float  contest 


Spelling 

Arithmetic 

Quotation 

Bird  protection 

Clean-up  contest 

Dairy  contest 

Herd  health  contest 

Peach  raising 

Good  farm  contest 

Egg-laying  contest 

Canning  contests 

Table  setting 

Lawn  improvement 

Cheese  making 

Old  settlers’  reminiscence 

Beauty  spot  contest 

Rural  art  contest 

Rope  tying 

Grain  naming 

Baking 

Sewing 

Essays  on  Guernsey  contest 
Good  book  contest 
Farmers’  club  contest 
Butterfat  contest 
Athletic  contests 
Fair  attendance  contest 


Fun-making  contests,  such  as  pie  eating,  pillow  fights,  toe-wrestling,  nail- 
driving. needle  threading,  whistling,  clothespin  contest,  egg-rolling,  slow  auto- 
driving, chair-making  race,  corn-stringing  contest. 


No  contest  awakens  keener  interest  or  enthusiasm,  nor  ap- 
peals to  a greater  number  of  people  than  the  plowing  match, 
which  is  yearly  growing  in  popularity  among  the  community 
fairs  of  Wisconsin.  The  following  description  of  the  staging 
of  the  plowing  match  at  Westboro  (Taylor  County)  will  give 
an  idea  of  its  splendid  possibilities  as  a source  of  interest,  edu- 
cation and  inspiration. 

WESTBORO  PLOWING  CONTEST 

There  never  was  a fairer  day  for 
a plowing  contest  than  Friday,  Sep- 
tember 21,  and  there  never  was  a 
better  committee  than  the  one  which 
served  at  Westboro  for  the  1917 
plowing  contest. 

The  plowing  contest  at  Westboro  j 
is  a fine  example  of  county  agent  j 
work.  The  county  agent  inaugu- 1 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


33 


rated  the  plowing-  contest  in  Taylor 
county,  but  the  people  are  making 
it  a success.  He  is  not  teaching  them 
how  to  plow,  but  each  year  they  are 
doing  better  plowing.  It  correctly  il- 
lustrates the  county  agent’s  work. 
Learn,  “through  him,’’  not  “from 
him,”  and  give  credit  where  credit 
it  due  to  the  committees  that  serve 
the  people  and  the  people  that  help. 

It  is  estimated  that  1,400  people 
visited  W^stboro  last  Friday  and 
there  was  something  doing  all  the 
time.  During  the  forenoon  the  Med- 
ford band  kept  things  bright  with 
music  while  the  committee  was  kept 
busy  arranging  and  booking  the  ex- 
hibits as  fast  as  they  came  in.  The 
eight  schools  which  were  present  in 
body  also  held  school  fair  and  pic- 
nic, as  a part  of  the  day’s  program. 

During  the  noon  hour  coffee  and 
buns  were  served  and  all  through 
Fitze’s  woods  were  to  be  found 
groups  and  parties  eating  their  pic- 
nic lunch. 

After  dinner  Professor  Galpin  held 
the  crowd  for  an  hour  telling  of  im- 
proving social  conditions  in  the  coun- 
try through  friendly  gatherings  and 
farmers’  clubs. 

Eight  contestants  were  lined  up 
for  the  plowing:  R.  H.  Aitken,  Jos. 
Imbach,  B.  Chas.  Kuchenbecker, 
Gunder  Nelson,  John  Posorski,  Rich 
Rindt,  Jos.  Wacek  and  H.  R.  Werne- 
strand. 

The  plowing  was  under  conditions 
that  were  rather  .favorable  for  good 
plowing.  The  field  was  an  old  sod, 
somewhat  rough,  dry,  and  more  or 
’ess  stony,  but  the  plowing  that  was 
done  was  excellent. 

The  judges,  Mr.  Getchel  and  Mr. 
Ingalls,  found  the  task  of  deciding 
rather  difficult,  for  there  was  much 
good  plowing,  but  after  totaling  all 
scores  and  weighing  all  evidence,  it 
was  found  that  Rich  Rindt,  a man 
i of  tall,  lean,  Yankee,  muscular  type, 
ranked  first.  Rindt  went  with  ter- 
rific sp.eed,  and  used  the  same  skill 
that  a dentist  uses  In  handling  an  in- 
strument near  a sensitive  nerve. 

R.  H.  Aitken  ranked  second,  Jos. 
Wacek  third,  and  Gunder  Nelson 
fourth.  The  winner  got  the  bull  do- 
nated by  the  banks  of  the  county, 
R.  H.  Aitken  the  sulky  plow  donated 
by  Westboro,  Jos.  Wacek  the  Tam- 
worth  boar  donated  by  the  county 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


agent,  and  Gunder  Nelson  the  feed 
cutter,  donated  by  the  International 
Harvester  Company. 

All  credit  to  Westboro  and  the 
committee  that  made  the  1917  plow- 
ing contest  the  greatest  event  in  the 
history  of  plowing  contests  in  Tay- 
lor county. 


FIG.  6. — THE'  OLD-TIME  PLOWING  MATCH 


The  plowing  match  is  moru  exciting  than  a football  game.  Who  is  the  best 
man  in  your  community? 


Rules  for  plowing  match.  Each  competitor  with  riding  plow 
must  use  three  horses  and  ride;  gangs,  four  horses.  Each  plow- 
man with  single  plow  must  plow  one-half  acre  within  three  hours; 
gangs,  three-fourths  acre.  No  person  will  be  entitled  to  more 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


as 


than  one  premium,  and  when  entering  must  state  in  which  class 
he  wishes  to  compete.  Plowing  must  be  between  five  and  six  and 
one-half  inches  in  depth,  and  should  show  a level  bottom  of  each 
furrow.  Plowman  is  not  allowed  to  fix  up  his  plowing  after  the 
plow  has  turned  in.  Plowing  will  commence  at  9 o’clock  a.  m. 
sharp.  All  rules  will  be  strictly  enforced.  Committee  reserves 
the  right  to  rectify  mistakes  as  soon  as  discovered  and  settle  all 
disputes  that  may  arise,  and  their  decision  shall  be  final.  All 
entries  subject  to  approval  of  committee,  and  must  be  made  not 
later  than  September  21,  1917.  Agents  for  the  different  plow  manu- 
factories are  expected  to  be  present,  and  the  following  tests  will 
be  made:  Quality  of  work,  ease  of  handling  and  durability.  Men 

and  boys  of  adjoining  towns  are  cordially  invited  to  compete  for 
all  the  different  premiums.  Judges  of  plowing  are  requested  to 
report  at  field  headquarters  at  9 :30  a.  m.  sharp  and  examine  the 
work  while  in  progress.  No  automobiles  allowed  in  field  while 
plowing  is  going  on. 


FIG.  7.— HONORED  FAR  AND  WIDE 

The  winner  of  a plowing  contest  is  known  far  outside  his  community. 
The  contests  are  often  widely  advertised. 


Guidance  for  judges.  Good  plowing  consists  of  turning  and 
setting  the  soil  into  nice,  even,  clean  and  straight  furrows  of 
roundish  conformation.  The  following  points  will  be  considered : 
Evenness  of  furrows,  30  points;  conformation  of  furrows,  30; 
straightness,  25;  neatness,  15. 


The  committee  on  entertainment  will  have  especially  close 
relations  with  the  boosters.  This  committee  must  secure  the 
cooperation  of  good  mixers  before  launching  their  program  for 
the  fair  day  or  days. 

Some  communities  find  it  a good  policy  to  name  the  days  of 
the  fair  in  case  the  fair  is  of  more  than  one  day’s  duration,  as 


Livestock  Day 
Acre  Improvement  Day 
All-Schools  Day 
Work  and  Wealth  Day 
Hospitality  Day 


Health  Day 
Settlers’  Day 
Farm  Day 
Market  Day 
Neighborhood  Day 


After  the  keynote  of  the  fair  has  been  determined,  whether 
named  or  not,  the  committee  on  entertainment,  should,  after 
consulting  with  the  executive  committee,  issue  an  outline  of 
the  fair  program,  including  such  features  as: 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


1.  Parades,  before,  during,  or  after  fair — old  settlers,  prize  win- 
ners, prize  animals,  children's  pets’  parade,  baby  carriage  parade, 
boys’  circus,  pageant  parade,  work  horse,  automobile 

2.  Contests — select  from  list  of  fair  contests 

3.  Special  shows — as  colt  show,  demonstrations 

4.  Music 

5.  Plays,  pageants  or  concerts 

6.  Serving  of  refreshments — booth,  banquet,  or  picnic 

7.  Excursion  to  some  historical  spot  or  some  experiment  ground 
or  some  place  of  special  interest,  as  to  new  barn 

8.  Auction  of  exhibit  products 

9.  Distribution  of  prizes 

10.  Meetings  of  different  associations  at  fair 

11.  Honoring  of  public-spirited  citizens 

12.  Erection  of  fair  .memorial 

13.  Lectures  on  various  subjects,  short  and  to-the-point 


FG.  8.— FARMERS  PLAY  VOLLEY  BALL 
Grown  folks  never  get  too  old  to  enjoy  community  games. 


The  following  program  carried  out  by  an  agricultural  club 
at  a local  fair,  has  the  necessary  element  of  variety  and  com- 
pleteness. 

Grand  parade  of  livestock 

Judging  horses,  mules,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  ponies 

Vaccination  demonstration 

Distribution  of  Spotted  China  pigs  to  pig  club  boys 

Grand  parade  of  prize  winners  (all  horses,  mules  and  cattle 
and  all  winners  in  every  department  will  be  expected  to  enter 
in  this  grand  parade  around  the  square) 

Men’s  five-acre  corn-growing  contest 

Athletic  stunts,  relay  races,  sack  races,  etc.,  will  furnish  amuse- 
ment each  day  between  judging  periods 


The  purely  social  get-together  spirit  must  not  be  forgotten. 
For  sheer  fun,  relaxation  and  entertainment  a few  of  these 
features  may  be  selected: 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


37 


Children’s  merry-go-round,  ponies  for  children  to  ride,  good 
movies — educational,  music — community  singing,  concerts,  glee 
club,  band  concert,  professional  musicians,  victrola,  dramatic 
forms — home  talent  play  or  opera,  outdoor  pageant  or  float,  drama 
variety,  boys’  circus,  costume  dances  on  the  green,  games  of  all 
kinds  for  young  and  old,  songs,  yells,  cheer  leaders,  registration — 
tags,  picnic  dinner  with  stunts,  home-coming  of  old  settlers, 
banquet  at  which  nothing  but  home-growing  products  appear, 
banquet  in  new  dairy  barn,  county  Chautauqua,  parade  of  prize 
winners,  getting  acquainted  contest,  home  talent  play,  pageant. 

A leader  of  games  with  several  helpers  should  be  on  hand 
to  supervise  and  conduct  such  plays  and  contests  as  these: 


For  Children  ■ 

Drop  the  Handkerchief 

Blind  Man’s  Buff— Still  Pond 

Pom-pom-pull-away 

Miss  Jennie  Jones 

Little  Sally  Waters 

The  Muffin  Man 

Princess  Tiptoe 

Go  Round  and  Round  the  Village 
Round  the  Mulberry  Bush 

Outdoor  Games  for  Boys  and  Girls 
40  Ways  to  Get  There 
Juggling  Match 
Needle’s  Eye 

Did  You  Ever  See  a Lassie? 

Outdoor  Games  for  Boys 
Three-legged  race 
Sack  race 
Bumps 

Jumping  contest 
Relay  race 
Tug  of  war 

Outdoor  Games  for  Older  Girls 
Clothespin  contest 
Overhead  relay 
Potato  race 
Rainy-day  race 

Tug-of-war  (Sticks  of  candy  on 

string) 


Bean  Bag  Race 
Old  Roger 
I See  You 

Old  Grimes  Is  Dead 
Soldier,  Soldier,  Will  You  Marry 
Me? 

I’ll  Give  You  a Paper  of  Pins 
Statues 

Farmer  in  the  Dell 


Three-Deep 
Grab  (The  Miller) 

How  to  Do,  My  Partner? 
Lend  a Hand 


Dodge  ball 
The  Pursuer 
Fox  and  Geese 
Paper  Chase 
Chair-making  race 
Apple-ducking  contest 


Paper  Chase 
Circle  ball 
Dodge  ball 
Prisoner 
Fly  Feather 


Platform  for  Games  for  All — Pie-eating  contest,  pillow  fight, 
quotation  contest,  community  sneeze,  whistling  contest,  letter  • 
game,  charades,  sentence  match,  rounds,  nail  driving,  needle 
threading  (for  men). 


The  home  talent  play  is  always  a drawing  feature  at  the 
community  fair,  and  will  he  taken  over  by  the  young  people 
with  great  enthusiasm  if  the  proposition  is  rightly  presented  to 


them.  The  following  plays  hav< 
munity  fairs: 

The  Rivals 

She  Stoops  to  Conquer 
Scenes  from  Dickens 
TJncle  Rube 

Between  Two  Lives  (Burkett) 

A Fatal  Message  (John  .Kendrick 
Bangs) 

A Russian  Honeymoon 
Cherry  Tree  Farm  (An  English 
comedy) 

Leonarda  (Bjornson) 


‘ been  successfully  given  at  com- 


Sam  Average 
Tho  Traveling  Man 
For  the  Cause 
A New  Liberator 
Bridging  the  Chasm 
A Farmhouse  Scene  in  Iceland  Thirty 
Years  Ago 
The  Prairie  Wolf 
Back  to  the  Farm 
A Bee  in  a Drone’s  Hive 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


When  the  fair  lasts  but  one  day,  if  a local  play  is  planned, 
it  is  generally  given  in  the  evening  as  at  the  Milltown  (Polk 
County)  Fair. 


There  was  an  entertainment  in  the 
evening  held  in  the  assembly  room 
of  the  school.  It  consisted  of  one 
part  contributed  by  the  girls’  glee 
club,  and  so  forth,  and  another  part, 
a minstrel  show  by  the  boys.  Ad- 
mission charges  of  15  cents  and  25 
cents  were  made  and  the  assembly 
room  was  crowded  to  capacity.  Net 
proceeds  from  the  entertainment  af- 
ter paying  for  stamped  ribbons,  ex- 
hibit coops,  and  so  forth,  for  the  fair 
were  about  $40.  Part  of  the  money 
was  spent  for  a large  flag  to  drape 
above  the  stage  in  the  assembly  room 
and  some  more  for  sliding  curtains 
for  the  same  stage.  The  remainder 
is  turned  over  to  the  picture  and  pi- 
ano fund  for  the  high-school. 

A popular  variation  of  the  home  talent  play  is  the  homemade 
pageant.  The  pageant  may  be  in  the  form  of  a float  parade 
as  at  Windsor  (Dane  County)  and  Spring  Green  (Sauk 
County).  In  some  cases,  a more  elaborate  preparation  is  pos- 
sible as  in  the  case  of  the  Holcombe  (Chippewa  County)  Pageant 
of  1917,  described  in  the  local  papers  as  follows : 

The  Pageant  on  Thursday 

The  historic  pageant  featuring  the 
fair  illustrated  vividly  the  more  dis- 
tinct stages  in  the  development  of 
the  Holcombe  country.  It  was  pro- 
claimed by  visitors  to  be  of  tremen- 
dous value,  educationally,  and  as  a 
historic  sight  can  never  be  dupli- 
cated. The  characters  making  up  the 
“march  of  civilization”  were  real. 

The  old  trapper,  cruiser,  lumber- 
jack, were  the  same  men  who  years 
ago  fought  the  elements  in  the  north 
woods  and  will  soon  pass  across  the 
great  divide  for  well-earned  rest. 

When  Indian  Was  Supreme 
In  the  pageant  were  represented 
the  life  of  the  community  in  the  days 
when  the  Indian  was  supreme,  when 
trappers  and  traders  entered  and  the 
timber  cruiser  prepared  the  way  for 
the  first  industry;  when  the  pioneer 
loggers  began  operations  with  primi- 
tive methods;  when  the  farmers 
came  in;  thereafter  the  development 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


39 


of  the  agricultural  up  to  and  includ- 
ing the  present  time. 

Intensely  Interesting 
In  the  line  were  the  Indians  in  na- 
tive costume,  most  of  them  from  the 
Flambeau  country;  the  trapper  wear, 
ing  a fur  cap  and  carrying  his  traps; 
a grizzled  timber  cruiser  of  the  “six- 
ties”; an  ox  team  and  jumper  with  a 
load,  carrying  that  estimable  pioneer, 

Mrs.  A.  J.  Edminster,  and  supplies 
such  as  were  used  in  the  first  logging 
camps;  woodsmen  of  the  early  days; 
pioneer  river  men;  farmers  in  old- 
fashioned  lumber  wagons  containing 
simple  and  primitive  household 
goods,  and  succeeding  farmers  with 
more  modern  paraphernalia  repre- 
senting the  development  of  the  agri- 
cultural equipment  up  to  the  present. 

The  line  ended  with  a drove  of  fine 
high-bred  stock  brought  in  from 
near-by  farms. 

Explanation  of  each  section  of  the  pageant  was  afforded  by  banners, 
each  bearing  a couplet  from  a poem  written  for  its  use  by  A.  J.  Ed- 
minster and  it  is  well  worth  preserving.  Below  we  publish  it  in  full. 

The  Real  Pioneer — 

All  honor  to  the  red  man  whose  lands  he  did  divide  among  his 
paleface  brothers  that  they  might  here  reside. 

The  Jesuit  Father — 

The  first  white  man,  though  not  the  least,  and  history  does  honor 
to  the  Jesuit  priest. 

The  Trapper — 

The  trapper  scents  the  odor  of  the  furs  so  slick  and  fine. 

The  Cruiser — 

And  the  cruiser  hears  the  whisper  of  the  winds  among  the  pine. 
The  Lumber-Jack — 

Where  the  cruiser  ever  ventures,  there  is  always  on  his  track,  the 
man  that  handles  saw  logs,  the  rugged  lumber-jack. . 

The  First  Tote  Team — 

The  lumber-jacks  had  appetites  of  an  enormous  size,  so  they  used 
this  conveyance  to  haul  in  their  supplies. 

The  River  Pig — 

The  lumber-jack  has  graduates,  with  calk  boots  he  feels  big,  for  he 
knows  that  all  the  boys  can't  be  a river  pig. 

The  First  Horse  Team — 

The  small  horse  is  entering,  it  seems  to  be  his  day. 

The  Larger  Team — 

But  destiny  sent  a larger  horse  our  way. 

More  Development — 

The  lumber-jacks  go  home  and  advise  all  their  relation,  that  the 
land  up  on  the  Chippewa  is  the  best  in  all  creation. 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


The  First  Farmer — 

Their  methods  may  be  simple,  but  to  all  this  thought  is  clear, 
there’s  none  that  starts  the  progress  like  the  sturdy  pioneer. 

And  His  Neighbor — 

This  land  has  gone  back  for  taxes,  on  the  county  it’s  a drain,  but 
we’ll  show  those  supervisors  how  to  farm  it  just  the  same. 


FIG.  9.— THE  COMMUNITY  HISTORY 

A living  picture  of  the  past  and  present  is  staged.  The  pageant  is  effective  and 
aids  in  building  community  pride  and  spirit. 


The  First  Cow — - 

I traded  off  my  watch  chain  and  a musket  for  this  cow.  Say,  won  t 
my  wife  be  tickled?  We’ll  do  some  farming  now. 

The  First  Preacher — 

The  settler  is  sometimes  careless  in  doing  as  he  ought,  so  the 
preacher  enters  in  to  instill  religious  thought. 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


41 


And  Then  What — 

A few  meeting's  held,  a few  converts  made,  and  then  we  organize 
the  First '’Ladies’  Aid. 


The  First  Church — 

The  ladies,  always  planning,  go  forward  with  a lurch,  and  the 
product  of  their  labor  is  the  pioneer  church. 


FIG.  10.— THE  PIONEER  STORY 

From  the  time  of  the  first  settler  to  the  present  makes  an  effective 
community  pageant. 


The  First  Doctor — 

The  doctor  now  is  needed  who  must  travel  through  the  woods,  and 
attend  to  all  the  ailments  in  the  various  neighborhoods. 

Fraternal — 

We  are  fraternally  united,  in  a’l  that’s  for  success,  and  for  peace 
and  harmony  we  rank  among  the  best. 

Again  We  Advance — 

You  will  find  among  us  “progress,”  too,  if  you  follow  up  our  path, 
we  have  thrown  away  the  cradle,  and  the  sickle,  scythe  and  snath. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


Better  Stock — 

At  this  stage,  this  beast  to  you  may  look  absurd. 

Look  Again — 

But  here  we  have  the  evidence,  he’s  the  father  of  this  herd. 




mmm 


1 

s jjj 

Mgg 

L ag  n 5J 

FIG.  11.— DKESSED  UP  FOR  THE  FAIR 

Folks  are  never  too  young  nor  too  old  to  play  a part  and  make  believe. 
Pageant  or  float  presents  bygone  days. 

Well,  Well,  the  Community  Kicker— 

Here  comes  the  village  kicker,  with  his  long-drawn-out  face, 
smashed  by  the  wheel  of  progress,  he  will  soon  have  run  his  race. 

He  Says — 

“I’ve  kicked  and  growled,  and  I’m  going  to  quit  the  whole  of  you, 
and  go  and  cast  my  lot  in  ranks  of  I.  W.  W. ; I have  tried  to  stop  de- 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


43 


velopment  in  all  these  years,  but  I see  my  funeral  sermon  will  bring 
joy  instead  of  tears.” 

Holcombe  Boys’  and  Girls’  Club — 

Now  the  boys  and  girls  have  organized  in  an  effort  to  he!p  their 
dads;  the  result  is  more  and  better  farming;  thanks,  to  the  lassies  and 
the  lads. 

The  Holcombe  Farmers’  Club — 

The  Farmers’  Club  comes  next,  and  all  say  in  one  accord;  that, 
this  garden  of  the  forest  has  helped  them  to  a “Ford.” 

The  entertainment  committee  will  also  be  responsible  for 
providing  music,  either  band  or  victrola,  orchestra  or  glee  club. 
They  must  not  forget  the  youngsters,  and  should  provide,  if 
possible,  a merry-go-round  and  a balloon  stand.  Cheer  leaders 
and  song  leaders  should  do  their  part  in  keeping  the  crowd 
happy  and  interested.  A rest  room  of  some  kind  should  be  pro- 
vided. At  Spring  Valley  (Pierce  County)  a notice  was  put 
in  the  fair  annual. 

REST  ROOM  FOR  LADIES 

The  New  Hall  will  be  open  all  day,  with  a Rest  Room  for 
ladies,  also  a check  room.  Small  children  may  be  left  here  in 
charge  of  the  Matrons. 

MEALS 

Good  meals  may  be  had  in  the  dining  room  of  the  New  Hall, 
served  by  the  Women’s  Auviliary. 


The  committee  on  grounds.  Although  the  duties  of  the  com- 
mittee on  grounds  are  relatively  few,  it  is  quite  essential  that 
they  carry  through  their  part  of  the  fair  enterprise  with  thor- 
oughness. 

This  committee  must  see  that  the  grounds  as  a whole  are  in 
fine  condition  on  the  opening  morning  of  the  fair  and  that  they 
are  kept  so  all  during  the  fair.  Receptacles  for  waste  material 
should  be  provided.  Boy  scouts  should  be  enlisted  for  police 
and  monitor  work,  and  everything  possible  should  be  done  to 
keep  the  fair  premises  in  spick  and  span  order,  for  a slipshod 
fairground  is  a poor  advertisement  for  an  up-to-date  com- 
munity. 

The  committee  on  grounds  also  has  in  charge  the  granting  of 
concessions  and  must  exercise  caution  regarding  cheap  or  harm- 
ful innovations  along  this  line.  In  case  any  money  is  left  in 
the  treasury,  the  fairground  committee  may  possibly  be  allowed 
to  add  some  improvement  to  the  fair  premises  each  year,  per- 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


haps  putting  up  some  memorial,  such  as  a fountain  in  the  park 
or  a flag  pole. 

Committee  on  prizes  and  awards.  The  committee  on  prizes 
and  awards  has  need  of  keenest  judgment  and  discrimination 
from  the  time  their  work  begins  until  the  last  prize  is  awarded. 
In  the  first  place,  they  must  consult  with  the  executive  com- 
mittee concerning  the  amount  which  is  to  be  expended  in  prizes 
Having  determined  this,  they  must  then  apportion  the  prizes 
among  the  different  contests,  and  exhibit  departments.  The 
next  step  after  this  is  deciding  upon  the  relative  value  of  prizes 
in  each  department. 

Next  must  be  determined  the  types  of  prizes  to  be  awarded 
clubs,  schools,  districts,  families  and  individuals ; types  of  prizes 
for  farmers,  farmers’  wives,  farm  boys,  and  farm  girls  must 
also  be  selected.  After  this  has  been  done,  the  committee  will 
then  determine  the  kind  of  prizes  to  be  given.  Prizes  may  be 
classified  roughly  as  follows: 

(a)  Money  prizes — new  currency,  gold  pieces 

(b)  Honor  badges — ribbons,  buttons,  pins,  banners,  pennants, 
silver  cups,  official  letter  “F”  (Fair) 

(c)  Prizes  of  educational  value,  as  farm  papers,  kodaks,  pure- 
bred hog 

(d)  Prizes  which  unite  interests  of  farmer  and  merchant,  such 
as  an  amount  in  trade,  fireless  cooker  given  by  merchant 

Prizes  may  be  purchased  from  fund  taken  from  the  fair  ap- 
propriation or  they  may  be  solicited  from  farmers,  housekeepers, 
merchants,  editors,  manufacturers,  stock  breeders’  associations, 
seed  and  nursery  houses  and  other  sources. 

Placards  announcing  the  prize  awards  should  be  posted  on 
the  fair  grounds  at  intervals  during  the  day.  This  keeps  up 
an  interest  in  exhibits,  and  gives  the  judges  opportunities  for 
explaining  and  instructing  concerning  points  in  the  score  cards. 

A parade  of  all  the  prize  winners  and  prize  stock  should,  if 
possible,  be  staged  at  some  time  during  the  fair,  but  the  actual 
distribution  of  prizes  should  be  deferred  until  some  time  when 
an  uninterrupted,  dignified  program  can  be  arranged  and  car- 
ried out.  It  is  better  to  wait  until  the  evening  following  the 
fair  or  later,  if  possible,  for  then  people  will  not  be  so  weary 
and  can  enjoy  the  program  without  feeling  hurried.  Provi- 
sion should  be  made  for  a regular  program.  Prize  winners 
should  appear  upon  the  platform  to  receive  their  awards  and 
the  applause  of  the  community.  All  this  may  seem  a great  deal 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


45 


of  trouble,  but  in  the  end  it  pays,  just  as  it  pays  to  insert  into 
the  paper  a word  of  appreciation  after  the  fair  is  all  over. 


How  to  Utilize  the  Fair 


The  fair  brings  results.  Many  good  results  are  sure  to  fol- 
low such  faithful  persistence  in  the  policy  of  courtesy  and  con- 
sideration on  the  part  of  the  fair  organizers.  New  interest  in 
community  enterprises  is  bound  to  spring  up,  a better  neighbor- 
hood spirit  is  likely  to  prevail,  and  each  household  in  the  com- 
munity will  go  back  to  its  tasks  with  renewed  hope. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  results  for  which  fair  organizers 
may  work,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  all  the  way  through  the 
preparation,  staging  and  exhibiting  of  the  fair. 


Good  roads  committee 
Boys’  and  girls’  club 
Farmers’  institute 
Community  club  house 
Farmer-banker  association 
Community  laundry 
Improvements  in  the  home  (running 
water — gasoline) 

Engine  washing-machine 
Better  school  lunches 
Parent-teacher  association 
Cooperative  marketing 


Lyceum  course 

Writing  of  the  community  history 
Founding  of  community  library 
Reading  of  good  literature  on  agri- 
culture 

Better  taste  in  house  furnishing  and 
farm  surroundings 
Livestock  improvement  association 
Cow  testing  association 
Debating  society 

“Alfalfa  Day”  or  “Seed  Corn  Week” 
Installation  of  good  movies  in  town 


Farmers’  clubs  at  the  county  fair.  Among  the  most  inter- 
esting of  the  outgrowths  of  the  community  fairs  is  the  Walworth 
County  plan  of  having  Farmers’  Club  Day  when  the  farmers’ 
clubs  compete,  visit,  and  play  together  at  the  county  fair. 


FARMERS’  CLUBS  A FAIR 
FEATURE 

Breezy  Side  of  Rural  Life  to  be 
Emphasized.  Thirteen  Organiza- 
tions in  County  will  Participate  in  j 
the  Festivities — Special  Tent  for  j 
Club  Headquarters. 

The  attractiveness  of  farm  life  will 
be  a feature  of  the  Walworth  Count., 
fair  this  September,  for  the  society 
has  appropriated  the  sum  of  $50  as 
special  prizes  to  the  farmers’  clubs 
and  to  the  club  members.  There  is 
also  a possibility  that  the  College  of 
Agriculture  will  send  a man  to  take 
moving  pictures  of  the  clubs  and 
the:r  special  exhibits. 

Public  recognition  of  the  work  and 
purpose  of  farmers’  clubs  is  an  idea 
gaining  rapid  headway  in  Wisconsin. 
It  is  a recognized  fact  that  the  coun- 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


I ty  fair  is  one  of  the  best  p'aces  to  I 
emphasize  the  importance  of  rural  i 
social  centers.  With  this  in  mind  1 
the  directors  of  the  fair  association 
appropriated  $50  for  special  prizes,  ! 
for  the  best  club  booths,  and  for  the  j 
best  individual  exhibits  made  by  club  t 
members  representing  the  13  farm-  ! 
er’  clubs  in  Walworth  county. 

The  fair  association  plans  to  fur- 
nish a large  tent  to  be  used  as  club 
headquarters  in  which  the  club 
booths  will  be  erected.  Prizes  will 
; be  awarded  the  several  booths  ac- 1 
cording  to  the  number  of  exhibits,  I 
quality,  decoration  and  arrangement. 
The  club  winning  first  pr:ze  on  the 
.booth  will  receive  $10,  and  the  fifth  i 
prize  will  be  $2. 

Members  of  the  several  clubs  may 
make  entries  in  a special  class  in 
which  various  farm  products  will  be 
shown.  Grains  will  be  shown  in  one 
class  and  garden  vegetables  in  an- 
other. An  entry  in  these  special 
classes  does  not  bar  entry  by  the 
same  person  in  the  regular  classes  of 
exhibits. 


The  following  directions  are  for  the  help  of  farmers’  clubs 
which  wish  to  amass  the  best  from  their  community  fair  for  re- 
production at  the  county  or  state  fair. 

Suggestions  for  a farmers’  club  exhibit.  A farmers’  club 
exhibit  may  be  planned  with  several  objects  in  mind.  Some 
parts  of  it  may  be  for  amusement;  other  parts  for  more  ser- 
ious entertainment ; other  parts  for  education ; and  other  parts 
to  bring  out  the  best  things  of  the  different  communities  in  order 
that  they  may  realize  what  has  been  accomplished  in  their  own 
community,  and  perhaps  feel  a stimulus  toward  a friendly 
neighborhood  rivalry  in  matters  of  community  improvement. 

General  suggestions.  As  to  the  means  of  carrying  out  the 
aims  already  mentioned,  some  general  suggestions  may  be  given : 

1.  Each  club  might  enter  a float  in  a parade.  The  floats 
might  be  constructed  with  the  idea  of  beauty,  or  with  the  idea 
of  producing  something  unique  and  laughable,  or  to  bring  out 
some  neighborhood  feature  which  is  distinctive. 

2.  An  entertainment  program  might  be  arranged  which 
would  consist  of  numbers  representative  of  the  different  clubs. 
If  ten  or  twelve  clubs  were  taking  part,  each  number  should 
be  limited  to  about  eight  minutes.  The  numbers  might  consist 


The  Rural  Community  Fair 


47 


of  songs,  a local  talent  play,  dialogues,  recitations,  exhibitions 
of  some  sort,  or  any  form  of  entertainment  or  stunt.  Special 
consideration  might  be  given  to  anything  which  emphasized  or 
demonstrated  the  value  of  the  farmers’  club,  its  work,  or  modern 
methods  of  farming. 

3.  The  exhibit  of  farm  produce.  This  would  necessarily  be 
limited,  and  because  of  this  fact,  it  might  even  be  desirable  to 
eliminate  it  entirely.  If  practicable,  the  committee  might  look 
carefully  over  the  community  and  pick  out  good  practical 
farmers  who  are  especially  successful  in  one  or  more  lines,  such 
as  dairying,  or  the  production  of  corn  or  oats.  These  might 


FIG.  13.— LET  THE  WOMEN  FOLKS  HAVE  THEIR  PART 
Bring-  to  the  fair  the  pretty  things  made  at  home  or  in  the  classes  at  school. 


he  induced  to  make  an  exhibit  which  would  call  attention  to  the 
methods  by  which  they  attained  their  results.  A still  better 
method  would  be  for  each  club  to  hold  a preliminary  exhibit 
but  at  the  same  time  seek  for  the  same  end. 

4.  As  the  school  is  a community  institution,  it  should  also 
have  a place  in  the  exhibit.  This  exhibit  might  consist  of  a 
photograph  of  the  schoolhouse  and  grounds,  another  one  of  the 
interior  of  the  building,  and  also  an  exhibit  of  the  school  work. 

5.  A picture  gallery  containing  photographs  of  local  scenes 
and  people,  made  by  amateurs.  This  might  include  pictures 
which  would  call  attention  to  beautiful  or  interesting  scenes, 
attractive  farmhouses,  well-planned  buildings,  livestock,  crops, 
good  roads,  and  so  forth.  It  might  also  include  pictures  of 
community  events  and  any  other  things  which  would  be  of  in- 


48 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  307 


terest  to  local  people.  Later  these  might  be  used  in  making  a 
club  album  to  which  additions  might  be  made  from  time  to  time. 

6.  In  order  that  the  people  may  come  to  appreciate  their 
degree  of  prosperity  and  progress  and  their  standing  with  re- 
lation to  other  communities,  and  that  free  rivalry  may  be  stim- 
ulated between  different  communities  all  looking  toward  im- 
provements on  the  farms,  in  the  homes,  and  in  the  community 
institutions,  some  exhibit  might  well  be  made  which  would  call 
people’s  attention  to  these  things. 

Three  general  methods  might  be  used. 

First,  pictures — for  instance,  those  already  described  as  show- 
ing the  prosperity  and  progress  of  the  community — might  be 
shown.  Second,  models  of  farm  layouts  might  have  a place  in 
such  an  exhibit.  Third,  small  signs  or  placards  showing  certain 
facts  about  the  community. 

Special  Suggestions  and  Directions 

Models  might  be  made  by  groups  of  the  boys  or  young  men 
without  excessive  amount  of  work,  provided  some  direction  and 
supervision  could  be  given  by  an  older  person.  If  there  is 
some  farm  in  any  community  which  is  noteworthy  for  either 
layouts  or  rotations  a miniature  model  constructed  in  a shallow 
box  filled  with  earth,  and  with  different  crops  growing  in  it, 
would  be  very  attractive. 

Placards  should  be  made  from  white  cardboard,  and  the 
lettering  should  be  large  enough  to  be  read  about  12  or  15  feet 
away.  These  placards  might  be  placed  on  the  walls  of  the  booth 
allotted  to  the  club.  The  facts  used  in  making  these  cards  could 
be  collected  by  different  committees  appointed  from  the  club 
members.  Some  typical  cards  are: 

Club  Membership 

Total  population  of  community 

Total  membership  of  the  club 

Percentage  of  community  in  the  club 

Modern  Lighting 

Number  of  homes  lighted  by  gas  or  electricity 

Number  owned  by  club  members 

Percentage  of  all  homes  having  modern  lighting 


DIGEST 


Alfalfa  is  a coming  hay  crop  in  Wisconsin.  Where  grown  suc- 
cessfully it  outyields  all  other  hay  crops  and  is  a most  valuable  feed. 
It  resists  drought,  eradicates  weeds,  and  improves  the  soil. 

Pages  3 to  8. 

Clover  is  sometimes  better  than  alfalfa.  There  are  places  where 
it  is  hard  to  get  a stand  of  alfalfa  and  where  clover  grows  like  a 
weed.  , Page  8. 

Alfalfa  does  best  on  a soil  with  good  under-drainage  and  a grav- 
elly limestone  subsoil.  Lime  is  the  greatest  need  of  alfalfa  and  the 
lack  of  it  is  the  chief  reason  for  failures  from  poor  soil  conditions. 
Have  the  soil  tested  before  seeding.  Inoculation  also  pays. 

Pages  9 to  16. 

The  seed  bed  should  be  firm,  fine,  and  well- prepared.  Spring  seed- 
ing is  best  with  an  early-ripening  nurse  crop.  The  young  alfalfa 
needs  help  to  fight  weeds  the  first  six  months.  The  rate  of  seeding 
varies  from  15  to  20  pounds  to  the  acre.  Pages  16  to  22. 

Timothy  and  alfalfa  make  a good  combination.  The  timothy  takes 

the  place  of  any  alfalfa  plants  that  are  winterkilled.  Page  23. 

Alfalfa,  like  clover,  winterkills.  Avoid  late  cutting  or  late  pas- 
turing, avoid  poorly  drained  soils,  and  sow  varieties  which  are  hardy. 
Some  varieties  of  alfalfa  resist  winterkilling  to  a marked  degree. 
Grimm,  Baltic,  and  Cossack  are  most  resistant,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
get  genuine  seed  of  these  varieties.  Pages  23  to  31. 

Three  cuttings  of  alfalfa  are  obtained  in  favorable  seasons.  Cur- 
ing the  hay  in  windrows  and  not  in  swaths  is  highly  important.  The 
crop  is  most  easily  handled  with  side  delivery  rakes  and  drum  hay 
loaders.  ‘ Pages  31  to  36. 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


Alfalfa  growing  is  popular  in  Wisconsin  because  of  the 
numerous  advantages  of  the  crop.  Where  it  can  be  grown 
successfully  it  excels  all  other  hay  crops  in  yields  to  the  acre, 
feeding  value,  drought  resistance,  soil  enrichment,  and  weed 
eradication. 

Thirty  years  ago  alfalfa  was  practically  a stranger  in  Wis- 
consin but  its  introduction  and  dissemination  have  gone  on  at 
a rapid  pace  until  it  is  estimated  that  60,000  acres  of  this  great 
forage  are  now  grown  in  the  state. 

Out  yields  Other  Hay  Crops 

A trial  conducted  on  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  farm 
in  which  yields  of  hay  and  protein  per  acre  from  alfalfa,  clover 
and  timothy  were  compared,  showed  that  alfalfa  gave  practically 
double  the  yields  of  clover  hay  and  three  times  that  of  timothy. 
Alfalfa  produced  in  a single  season  three  times  as  much  protein 
per  acre  as  clover  and  nine  times  as  much  as  timothy. 

Has  a High  Feeding  Value 

Alfalfa  is  noted  for  its  high  feeding  value.  Farm  animals 
are  fond  of  it  and  the  high  protein  content  (approximately  15 
per  cent)  makes  it  exceedingly  valuable  for  milk  and  meat  pro- 
duction. Feeding  experiments  have  not  shown  it  to  be  de- 
cidedly superior  to  red  clover  but  average  farm  experience  gives 
it  first  rank  as  a nutritious  and  palatable  hay.  Well-cured 
alfalfa  is  practically  equal  to  bran  in  feeding  value.  It  takes 
the  place  of  costly  feed  stuffs  and  reduces  the  feed  bill.  It  is 
relished  by  all  farm  animals. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


More  Droughti-Resistant  Than  Clover 

Because  of  its  large  root  growth  alfalfa  exerts  a beneficial 
effect  on  the  soil  in  which  it  grows.  Through  its  power  to  feed 
upon  the  nec.essary  soil  elements  for  growth  and  to  secure 
moisture  at  great  depths  below  the  surface,  alfalfa  is  able  to 
stand  severe  drought.  When  other  hay  crops  are  brown  be- 
cause of  drought,  alfalfa  often  continues  its  green  growth, 


FIG.  1.— PLOWING  UNDER  THE  THIRD  CROP  OF  ALFALFA 
Corn  will  show  how  alfalfa  makes  the  land  rich. 


drawing  moisture  and  plant  food  from  depths  to  which  other 
forage  plants  are  unable  to  penetrate.  This  is  noticeable  not 
only  in  old  stands  where  the  roots  are  deeply  entrenched,  but 
with  new  seedings,  of  which  the  first  year ’s  growth  is  much  more 
drought-resistant  than  that  of  clover. 

Evidence  of  this  fact  is  well  shown  by  the  reports  of  several 
members  of  the  Alfalfa  Order,  Wisconsin’s  state  alfalfa  growers 
association,  received  during  the  summers  of  1918  and  1919. 
Alfalfa  and  clover  were  sown  adjacently  and  in  the  same 
fields,  under  uniform  soil'  conditions  and  in  the  same  manner. 
The  clover  succumbed  to  the  summer ’s  drought  while  the 
alfalfa  came  through  in  excellent  shape  following  fall  rains. 

Because  the  nature  of  the  plant  is  to  send  into  the  soil  vast 
numbers  of  roots,  the  soil,  even  though  previously  compact, 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


5 


becomes  porous  and  friable  when  alfalfa  is  grown.  Later, 
when  the  land  is  plowed  and  fitted  for  other  crops,  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil  will  be  found  very  much  benefited.  The 


FTG.  2.— FERTILIZER  FACTORIES  ON  ROOTS  OF  ALFALFA 

The  little  white  swellings  or  nodules  on  alfalfa  loots  are  sure  indications  of  proper 
inoculation.  They  are  the  homes  of  millions  of  alfalfa  bacteria  which  gather  nitrogen 
from  the  soil  air  and  convert  it  into  an  actual  growth-producing  fertilizer  for  the 
alfalfa  plants. 

mass  of  root  growth,  which  decays  when  the  plant  is  killed, 
adds  materially  to  the  humus  and  increases  the  fertility  and 
productivity  of  the  soil. 

Fertilizer  Factories  on  Alfalfa  Roots 

Alfalfa,  like  clover,  beans,  peas,  vetches,  or  other  legumes,  is 
one  of  those  great  renovating  plants  which  add  fertility  to  the 
soil  by  means  of  the  free  nitrogen  they  are  able  to  get  from 
the  air.  If  an  alfalfa  plant  from  a successful  alfalfa  field  is 
taken  up  by  the  roots,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  fibrous  roots 
are  covered  with  small  bunches.  These  swellings,  or  nodules, 
are  the  homes  of  millions  of  minute  bacteria  which  absorb  the 
nitrogen  from  the  air  and  convert  it  into  food  for  the  plant. 
This  food  is  essential  for  successful  plant  growth.  A good 


G 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


stand  and  favorable  growth  of  inoculated  alfalfa  may  add  more 
than  a hundred  pounds  of  nitrogen  to  an  acre  of  soil  each  year, 
provided  all  manure  from  the  alfalfa  hay  is  returned  to  the 
soil  which  grew  it.  Where  bacteria  are  not  present  in  the 
soil,  this  nitrogen-fixing  process  does  not  occur. 

Alfalfa  Is  a Weed  Enemy 

In  the  early  stages  of  growth  of  alfalfa,  weeds  are  a menace. 
After  the  crop  becomes  well  established  it,  in  turn,  becomes  a 
menace  to  nearly  all  bad  weeds,  except  quack  grass. 

The  Canada  thistle  has  long  been  a dreaded  enemy  of  the 
farmer.  The  persistent  growth  of  this  noxious  weed  and  the 
necessary  expense  and  labor  involved  in  keeping  it  under  control 
have  levied  a heavy  tax  on  some  farms  where  it  has  become 
established.  Within  the  last  few  years  many  farmers  have  re- 
ported complete  success  in  eradicating  large  areas  of  Canada 
thistles  by  growing  alfalfa.  The  rapid  and  dense  growth  of 
alfalfa  after  each  of  the  two  or  more  cuttings  it  annually  re- 
ceives, greatly  weakens  the  Canada  thistle  plants.  They 
gradually  die  and  at  last  the  entire  field  of  alfalfa  is  free. 
The  success  with  which  this  may  be  accomplished  is  entirely 
dependent  on  securing  a good  thick  stand  of  the  alfalfa.  Often 
good  results  have  been  secured  by  following  one  of  the  standard 
methods  of  seeding  of  alfalfa,  without  any  particular  efforts  in 
the  way  of  previous  cultivation  other  than  that  necessary  for 
the  correct  preparation  of  the  seed  bed. 

More  certain  results  can  be  obtained  by  plowing  deep  in  the 
late  summer  or  early  fall,  soon  after  a crop  has  been  removed. 
The  possibility  of  soil  washing  will  have  to  be  considered  before 
fall  plowing  is  undertaken.  The  soil  should  be  harrowed  often 
enough  through  the  fall,  preferably  with  a spring-tooth  harrow, 
to  keep  the  Canada  thistles  well  subdued.  Harrowing  will  drag 
many  of  the  roots  to  the  surface,  where  they  will  be  killed  by 
exposure  to  the  sun.  As  early  in  the  spring  as  conditions 
permit,  the  soil  should  be  plowed  again,  and  until  about  the 
last  week  in  June  it  should  be  harrowed  or  disked  as  often  as 
necessary  to  free  the  land  of  all  visible  weed  growth.  If  the 
Canada  thistles  cannot  be  fully  controlled  by  harrowing,  another 
plowing  is  advisable  a week  or  ten  days  before  seeding.  Good 
judgment  must  be  used,  as  this  matter  depends  entirely  on  con- 
ditions. 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


7 


By  the  last  of  June  the  Canada  thistles  should  be  well  sub- 
dued by  the  cultivation  the  soil  has  received.  Then,  after  the 
land  is  carefully  inoculated,  manured  and  otherwise  put  in  the 
best  condition,  the  alfalfa  seed  may  be  sown  alone  without  a 
nurse  crop  at  the  rate  of  20  to  25  pounds  an  acre.  When  the 
alfalfa  has  growh  eight  or  nine  inches  the  Canada  thistles  and 
other  weeds  may  also  be  abundant,  and  clipping  the  field  not 


FIG.  3.— WHERE  CLOVER  GROWS  LIKE  A WEED 
If  clover  grows  easily  and  it  is  difficult  and  costly  to  establish  alfalfa,  grow  clover. 


later  than  September  1 is  advisable.  The  next  year  the  thistles 
will  come  again,  but  the  alfalfa  soon  develops  an  overmastering- 
growth,  and  with  the  frequent  cuttings  the  crop  receives,  it 
seldom  takes  more  than  three  years  to  eradicate  the  thistles. 
All  the  while  profitable  crops  of  valuable  alfalfa  hay  are  being 
secured  and  the  soil  is  being  freed  from  the  growth  of  one  of 
the  most  serious  noxious  weeds.  This  is  a benefit  which  is  not 
received  from  any  other  hay  crop.  It  is  true  that  a timothy 
sod  or  a good  crop  of  clover  may,  in  a measure,  subdue  bad 
weeds,  but  neither  crop  can  be  compared  with  alfalfa  for 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


successful  weed  eradication,  particularly  of  Canada  thistles. 
Clover  does  not  last  long  enough  and  timothy  does  not  grow 
fast  enough. 

Where  Clover  May  Be  Better  Than  Alfalfa 

It  is  not  intended  to  urge  the  growing  of  alfalfa  on  every 
farm  for  there  are  large  areas  where  clover  is  a more  profitable 
crop.  The  greater  portion  of  northern  Wisconsin,  where  much 
of  the  land  is  newly  cleared,  grows  clover  like  a weed.  That 
alfalfa  can  be  grown  there  with  the  use  of  lime  and  inoculation 
has  often  been  demonstrated,  but  with  clover  so  abundant  and 
so  luxuriant  in  both  forage  and  seed  production,  and  so  certain 
and  easily  established  without  the  extra  precautions  often  re- 
quired by  alfalfa,  the  northern  farmer  recognizes  clover  as  his 
best  hay  crop. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  parts  of  southern  Wisconsin  alfalfa 
grows  like  a weed.  In  other  parts  clover  does  not  grow  as  it 
did  when  the  land  was  new.  It  is  often  hard  to  get  a stand  of 
red  clover.  Some  say  the  soil  is  “clover  sick,”  which  nearly 
always  means  a lack  of  lime.  Under  these  conditions,  and 
especially  where  liming  is  practiced,  alfalfa  may  prove  a much 
more  profitable  crop  because  of  its  higher  yield  and  greater 
permanence.  A good  stand  of  a hardy  variety  of  alfalfa  may 
last  many  years  and  abundant  crops  of  hay  can  be  obtained 
at  no  other  expense  than  the  initial  cost  of  seeding  and  the 
annual  harvesting.  A crop  like  red  clover,  which  usually  lasts 
but  one  year  after  seeding,  must  be  plowed  and  reseeded  later 
in  the  rotation.  Over  a period  of  years  much  more  labor  in 
the  way  of  frequent  seed  bed  preparations  is  involved. 

Crops  That  Work  Hardest  For  Us 

In  this  day  of  high-priced  land  and  high-priced  labor  it 
becomes  necessary  for  the  livestock  farmers  to  grow  chiefly 
those  crops  that  work  hardest  for  them,  those  crops  that  produce 
the  most  and  bring  the  greatest  net  returns  for  the  labor  and 
effort  applied.  In  Wisconsin  there  are  three  crops  which  stand 
foremost  in  the  production  of  feed  per  acre  for  livestock — alfalfa 
and  clover,  for  hay;  and  corn,  for  silage.  Here  is  a combina- 
tion of  crops,  which,  if  grown  successfully,  cannot  be  beaten  for 
home-grown  feed  for  milk  and  meat  production.  The  acreage  of 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


9 


pure  timothy  in  Wisconsin  is  about  equal  to  that  of  alfalfa  and 
clover  combined,  and  yet  timothy  is  the  poorest  producing  hay 
and  the  poorest  feeding  hay  grown  on  the  farm.  Timothy  is 
all  right  in  combination  with  either  clover  or  alfalfa  but  as 
a straight  hay  crop  it  has  no  place  on  the  average  livestock  farm 
in  Wisconsin. 

Where  to  Grow  Alfalfa 

Choose  a sloping  soil.  Avoid  heavy  flat  land  with  a hard  pan 
subsoil  that  does  not  permit  good  under-drainage.  A mixture 


FIG.  4.— BEST  TO  CHOOSE  A SLOPING  FIELD 
Flat  lands  will  grow  alfalfa  but  smothering  ice  sheets  like  this  may  cause  winterkilling. 


of  timothy  and  alsike  is  the  hay  crop  for  such  conditions. 
Alfalfa  must  have  both  good  surface  and  good  under-drainage. 
It  likes  a gravelly  limestone  subsoil  best.  Sometimes  it  grows 
well  on  rich  bottom  lands  or  on  black  flat  prairie  loams  that 
have  thorough  under-drainage,  but  in  certain  years  it  will  suffer 
severely  from  ice  sheets  and  other  winter  injury  on  any  flat 
ground.  Better  choose  a sloping  field. 

Select  reasonably  rich  soil.  It  is  a waste  of  time  and  money 
to  attempt  growing  alfalfa  on  a worn-out  piece  of  land.  If 
the  soil  is  not  fertile,  a good  topdressing  of  manure  and  in  many 
instances,  an  application  of  phosphate  fertilizer,  would  help 
immensely  to  increase  the  yields. 

“Lime,  inoculation  and  manure  make  alfalfa  doubly  sure” 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


is  particularly  true  on  poor  soils.  On  very  thin,  rocky  lime- 
stone ground,  sweet  clover  may  prove  much  better  than  alfalfa, 
especially  from  the  standpoint  of  building  up  the  land.  Sweet 
and  red  clover  can  be  grown  on  poor  soils  without  fertilization 
with  a greater  degree  of  success  than  alfalfa. 

Newly  cleared  land  or  virgin  soils  may  be  fertile  but  on 
account  of  blue  grass  infestation  and  poor  physical  condition 
such  ground  should  first  be  subdued  by  cropping  a number  of 
years  with  cultivated  crops,  such  as  corn  or  potatoes  in  rotation 
with  grain  and  clover. 

While  some  excellent  results  have  been  obtained  with  alfalfa 
on  sandy  soils  it  should  not  be  recommended  too  strongly  on 
the  poorer  sands.  Special  soil  treatment  in  the  way  of  liming, 
fertilization  and  rolling  is  nearly  always  required  for  success. 

Use  clean  ground.  To  avoid  weed  trouble  have  alfalfa  follow 
some  well-cultivated  crop  like  corn  or  potatoes.  The  use  of 
a nurse  crop  which  is  cut  early  will  often  control  the  weeds  the 

first  season,  but  if  they  should 
get  bad,  clipping  with  a 
mower  or  grain  binder  about 
the  middle  of  August  will 
largely  dispose  of  that  diffi- 
culty. 


FIG.  5. — SIGNS  OF  PROGRESS 
Lime  for  alfalfa;  the  silo  for  corn. 


Lack  of  sufficient  lime  in 
the  surface  six  inches  of  soil  is 
the  greatest  cause  for  failures, 
poor  stands,  and  poor  growths 
of  alfalfa.  Even  soils  of  dis- 
tinct limestone  origin  and 
formation  are  often  too  sour 
to  grow  alfalfa  successfully. 
Rain,  with  the  aid  of  cultiva- 
tion and  years  of  cropping, 
may  have  leached  the  lime  out 
of  the  surface  soil.  Leaching 
and  the  removal  of  lime  in 
crops  taken  off  the  land  may 
have  reduced  the  supply  so 


Lime — Alfalfa’s  Greatest 
Need 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


11 


much  that  a sour  condition  has  developed,  making  the  soil  un- 
favorable to  the  growth  of  both  alfalfa  and  clover.  This  condi- 
tion is  known  as  soil  acidity. 

Alfalfa  is  a lime-loving  plant.  Four  tons  of  cured  alfalfa 
remove  20  times  as  much  lime  from  the  soil  as  the  straw  and 
grain  of  a 30-bushel  wheat  crop.  A ton  of  alfalfa  hay  contains 


FIG.  6.— THE  BLUE  LITMUS  PAPER  TURNS  PINK  WHEN  PLACED  IN  CONTACT 

WITH  ACID  SOIL 

Make  a ball  of  moist  earth  and  break  in  two  halves.  Place  litmus  paper  on  one  half 
and  cover  firmly  with  the  other.  If  after  five  minutes  the  paper  has  turned  pink  in 
spots  or  pink  all  over  the  soil  is  sour. 

nearly  100  pounds  of  lime.  There  is  no  crop  grown  on  our 
farms  which  needs  as  much  lime  as  does  alfalfa.  This  explains 
why  alfalfa  does  so  well  in  southeastern  Wisconsin,  where  the 
soil  is,  for  the  most  part,  underlain  with  a gravelly  limestone 
subsoil.  Even  here  the  surface  is  often  sour  and  liming  proves 
necessary  and  profitable.  On  very  fertile  soils  alfalfa  will  grow 
well  even  though  the  soil  is  quite  acid.  The  greater  the  soil 
fertility,  the  smaller  the  amount  of  lime  required. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


Have  Your  Soil  Tested 

Not  every  field  needs  lime  to  grow  alfalfa  successfully.  Some 
soils  are  abundantly  supplied  and  need  no  further  applications. 
Other  fields  may  require  as  much  as  five  tons  an  acre.  The 
lime  requirements  of  any  soil  for  successful  alfalfa  growing 
can  be  determined  easily  by  the  Truog  test.  This  test  not 
only  tells  whether  or  not  the  land  needs  lime  for  success  with 
alfalfa  but  shows  approximately  how  much  lime  should  be 
applied.  It  has,  in  a large  measure,  taken  the  “gamble”  out 
of  alfalfa  growing.  There  is  no  need  to  take  chances.  Find 
out  if  your  soil  needs  lime.  HavS  it  tested  and  save  money. 
Get  your  county  agent  to  do  it  or  send  a half-pound  sample 
to  your  experiment  station.  They  will  let  you  know  how  much 
lime,  if  any,  you  should  use  for  success  with  alfalfa.  If  your 
soil  is  sour  and  you  are  not  in  a position  to  get  ground  lime- 
stone or  some  suitable  form  of  lime,  better  wait  to  sow  alfalfa. 
Lack  of  lime  has  been  the  cause  of  thousands  of  failures  in  the 
way  of  sickly  yellow  starving  alfalfa  fields. 

Kind  and  Amount  of  Lime  to  Use 

The  form  of  lime  most  generally  used  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses is  ground  limestone.  It  is  cheap  and  quite  readily  ob- 
tained. In  case  of  long  hauls  from  freight  stations  farmers 
may  cooperate  in  purchasing  a portable  lime  grinder  and  doing 
their  own  grinding,  provided  a quarry  of  good  limestone,  con- 
taining not  more  than  10  per  cent  impurities,  is  available. 
Limestone  samples  are  tested  free  by  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station  and  information  rendered  as  to  their  value  for  grinding 
purposes. 

Ground  limestone  may  be  used  in  several  grades.  Although 
the  coarse  form  is  cheaper,  the  finely  ground  product  brings 
more  immediate  results  with  smaller  applications.  Generally 
from  two  to  four  tons  to  the  acre  are  Required,  but  the  amount 
used  should  be  gauged  entirely  by  the  fineness  of  the  limestone 
and  the  results  obtained  with  the  soil  acidity  test.  Better  use 
too  much  than  too  little,  as  an  excess  does  no  damage  and  makes 
the  application  last  much  longer. 

Marl  is  an  excellent  form  of  lime  but  is  generally  difficult  to 
buy.  Waste  limes  such  as  airslaked  lime,  and  lime  refuse  from 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


13 


sugar  beet  factories  and  lime  kilns,  are  good  if  bought  right. 
As  these  by-products  are  often  stored  outside  and  are  thus  ex- 
posed to  rain,  it  is  important  to  know  the  moisture  content  before 


FIG.  7— IT  TELLS  HOW  MUCH  LIME  THE  SOIL  NEEDS 

Truog’s  test  not  only  determines  the  acidity  of  the  soil  but  gives  the  amount  of  lime 
required  to  grow  alfalfa  successfully. 

purchasing  in  any  considerable  quantity.  This  may  also  hold 
true  with  ground  limestone. 

Apply  Lime  on  Plowed  Ground 

Lime  should  always  be  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  plowed 
soil  and  then  harrowed  in.  It  may  be  applied  in  the  fall,  winter 
or  spring.  It  should  never  be  plowed  under.  Sandy  soils 
are  best  limed  in  the  spring,  before  seeding,  as  there  may  be 
some  loss  by  leaching  if  such  soils  are  limed  in  the  winter  or 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


fall.  Lime  can  be  spread  with  a shovel  directly  from  the  wagon 
box  on  a still  day.  Lime  refuse  and  other  forms  of  damp  lime 
are  very  conveniently  spread  in  this  way.  Where  large  amounts 
are  to  be  handled,  lime  spreaders  are  used'  to  good  advantage. 
The  manure  spreader,  too,  can  be  used  for  spreading  lime.  The 
apron  needs  to  be  covered  with  a few  inches  of  manure  or 
barnyard  chaff  and  the  machine  set  at  the  lowest  speed,  so 


FIG,  8.— LIME  IS  CONVENIENTLY  DISTRIBUTED  WITH  A MANURE  SPREADER 
This  makes  a convenient  and  efficient  way  of  applying  the  lime. 

as  to  distribute  about  four  loads  to  the  acre.  The  lime  is  then 
spread  on  this  layer  and  enough  hauled  in  each  load  to  make 
the  desired  application. 

As  a top  dressing  ground  limestone  has  not  proved  effective 
except  on  loose,  open,  sandy  soils  where  the  lime  will  work  its 
way  down  where  it  is  needed.  In  such  cases  it  can  be  applied 
in  the  fall,  winter  or  early  spring.  With  heavier  soils,  lime 
applied  to  a plowed  field  and  worked  in  when  the  seed  bed  is 
prepared  gives  more  profitable  results  than  lime  applied  as  a 
top  dressing  any  time  after  seeding. 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


15 


Many  Fields  Need  Inoculation 

Alfalfa  is  a new  crop  in  Wisconsin.  Where  alfalfa  has  not 
been  previously  grown,  the  soil  frequently  requires  the  intro- 
duction of  special  bacteria  before  a successful  stand  can  be 
obtained.  Inoculation  is  the  process  of  adding  these  bacteria 
to  the  soil  or  seed. 

When  the  bacteria  are  present  in  the  soil  in  limited  numbers, 
the  plants  that  are  not  acted  upon  by  them  often  become  weak 
and  winterkill.  This  is  especially  true  of  poor  soils  low  in 


fig.  9.— lack  of  lime  causes  many  failures 

Thin  stands  and  sickly  yellow  growths  are  often  caused  by  sour  soils. 


nitrogen.  In  some  sections  of  the  state  the  ground  is  sufficiently 
supplied  with  alfalfa  bacteria  so  that  inoculation  is  not  neces- 
sary, but  there  are  many  localities  where  the  bacteria  are 
present  in  such  limited  numbers  that  it  seems  impossible  to  get 
a good  stand  to  survive  the  first  winter. 

Sweet  clover,  formerly  regarded  as  an  ordinary  roadside  weed 
in  nearly  all  of  the  southern  and  eastern  counties  of  the  state, 
is  one  of  the  alfalfa  bacteria  distributers.  Fields  may  be  suc- 
cessfully inoculated  by  scattering  upon  them  one  ton  of  soil 
from  an  old  alfalfa  field  or  from  land  upon  which  sweet  clover 
has  grown. 

A much  more  convenient  method  of  inoculation  is  now  possible 
since  the  bacteriology  department  of  the  experiment  station 
has  been  furnishing  farmers  with  cultures  at  the  cost  of  prep- 
aration. One  bottle  is  sufficient  to  treat  the  seed  for  one  acre. 
Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  with  the  culture  and 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


farmers  over  the  entire  state  are  taking  advantage  of  this  helpful 
service. 

A good  scheme  to  get  the 
entire  farm  inoculated  for 
future  crops  of  alfalfa  is  to 
use  two  pounds  of  inoculated 
alfalfa  seed  an  acre  with  ev- 
ery grass  and  clover  seeding. 
The  scattered  alfalfa  plants 
serve  as  distributers  of  the 
alfalfa  bacteria  in  the  soil  and 
at  the  same  time  improve  the 
quality  of  hay. 

A Firm  Seed  Bed  Best 


The  principal  factor  in  get- 
ting land  ready  for  alfalfa  is 
to  have  a firm  seed  bed  with 
the  lumps  on  the  surface  well 
broken  up.  Fall  plowing  for 
heavy  soils  gives  time  for  the 
land  to  settle  and  develop  the 
proper  firmness.  Alfalfa 
sown  on  spring  plowed 
ground,  and  especially  on 
loose  sandy  soils  that  always 
require  spring  plowing,  is 
benefited  by  rolling  with  a 
corrugated  roller.  Boiling 
aids  clover,  also,  and  brings  "better  yields  of  grain.  In  general, 
no  farm  implement  helps  to  prepare  a better  and  more  economic- 
ally prepared  seed  bed  than  does  the  corrugated  roller. 


FIG.  10 —INOCULATION  OR  STARVATION 

Each  jar  contains  pure  quartz  to  which 
all  the  necessary  elements  for  plant  growth, 
except  nitrogen,  have  been  added.  The  al- 
falfa bacteria  supplied  by  inoculation  have 
taken  sufficient  nitrogen  from  the  air  to 
produce  a healthy  growth  of  alfalfa.  The 
alfalfa  plants  in  the  sand  receiving  no 
inoculation  have  starved  for  want  of  nitro- 
gen. Especially  on  poor  sandy  and  other 
infertile  soils,  which  may  lack  nitrogen, 
inoculation  is  very  important. 


Spring  Seeding  Most  Successful 

There  are  many  ways  of  growing  alfalfa  but  the  outstanding 
method  used  in  Wisconsin  is  to  spring-sow  with  grain.  The 
greatest  dangers  which  attend  this  method  are  that  lodged 
grain  will  smother  the  seeding,  and  .severe  drought  following 
the  removal  of  the  grain  crop  may  ruin  the  stand.  These  dif- 
ficulties are  effectively  overcome  by  cutting  the  nurse  crop  for 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


17 


hay  just  after  it  is  headed  out,  an  important  precaution  where 
'summer  drought  causes  loss  to  clover  or  alfalfa  seedings.  It 
gives  the  alfalfa  a good  growing  start  before  the  dry  weather 
approaches  and  enables  it  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  summer 


FIG.  11— PREPARE  A GOOD  SEED  BED 

The  corrugated  roller  breaks  coarse  lumps,  firms  the  seed  bed,  and  leaves  the 
surface  loose. 


drought  and  grasshoppers  later  on.  Where  grain  is  allowed 
to  ripen,  early  maturing  varieties  should  be  used,  such  as 
Kherson  oats  (Wisconsin  No.  7)  or  pedigreed  barley.  Avoid 
spring  wheat  or  late  oats  as  these  grains  remain  on  the  soil  too 
long.  Grain  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  not  more  than  one 
bushel  an  acre  to  avoid  crowding  the  alfalfa  too  severely. 

Canning  peas  make  a very  desirable  nurse  crop  for  alfalfa, 
primarily  because  of  their  very  early  harvesting  period.  The 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


particular  advantages  of  sowing  alfalfa  with  a nurse  crop  come 
from  the  prevention  of  soil  washing,  the  checking  of  weed 
growth,  and  returns  from  the  soil  in  the  form  of  grain  or  forage 
the  first  year. 

Winter  wheat  and  winter  rye  are  sown  in  September,  which 
is  too  late  for  alfalfa.  These  grains  may  be  used  as  nurse  crop 
with  some  degree  of  success  by  sowing  the  alfalfa  early  the 
next  spring  before  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  and  preferably 
on  top  of  the  last  snow.  When  clay  or  loam  soils  thaw  out  they 


FIG.  12.— A THIN  NURSE  CROP  FOR  THICK  ALFALFA' 

The  good  stand  was  seeded  with  one  bushel  of  barley  an  acre  while  the  poor  stand  was 
seeded  with  three  bushels  of  oats  to  the  acre. 

become  honeycombed  with  cracks  and  small  crevices  which  later 
close  up  and  cover  the  seed.  On  lighter  soils  this  does  not  occur 
so  effectually,  and  harrowing  in  the  seed  is  necessary,  a practice 
in  no  way  harmful  to  the  growing  rye  or  wheat.  While  alfalfa 
seed,  like  clover,  is  not  injured  by  being  seeded  on  snow  or 
frozen  ground  and  germination  occurs  with  the  onset  of  warm 
weather,  this  method  seems  to  give  much  better  general  success 
with  clover  than  with  alfalfa. 

Seeding  Alfalfa  Alone 


Oner  of  the  surest  but  most  expensive  ways  to  sow  alfalfa  is 
to  put  the  soil  through  a careful  weed-killing  process  by  disking 
and  harrowing  at  frequent  intervals  and  seeding  alone  in  May 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


19 


or  June.  If  the  soil  is  extremely  weedy  the  cultivation  should 
be  continued  until  early  in  July.  Where  danger  of  soil  wash- 
ing is  serious  this  method  should  never  be  used.  While  this 
plan  involves  elaborate  soil*  preparations  it  has  its  advantages 
in  eliminating  the  weed  difficulty  and  in  giving  time  for  such 
soil  treatment  as  liming,  manuring  and  fertilization.  On  sandy 


FIG.  13.— LATE  SUMMER  SEEDING  IN  WISCONSIN  REDUCES  VIGOR  OF  GROWTH 
THE  FOLLOWING  SPRING 


Length  of  Roots  Length  of  Stems 

Date  Seeded  1914  May  12,  1915,  May  12,  1915, 

Inches  Inches 

August  4 20  20 

August  25  13  17 

September  15  10  13 

September  25  8 8 


soils,  where  there  is  not  too  much  danger  of  soil  blowing,  it 
is  an  ideal  way  to  get  a good  stand.  The  average  sandy  land 
will  not  produce  sufficient  growth  of  alfalfa  when  sown  with 
a nurse  crop  to  withstand  the  summer’s  drought  unless  the 
nurse  crop  is  cut  for  hay  and  only  two  or  three  pecks  of  seed 
used  to  an  acre.  The  principal  value  of  a nurse  crop  for  alfalfa 
on  sandy  soils  is  to  prevent  soil  blowing. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


Crops  like  early  potatoes  and  canning  peas  are  harvested 
early  in  the  summer  and  the  soil  can  be  disked  (not  plowed) 
and  harrowed  in  good  shape  for  July  seedings  of  alfalfa  with 
excellent  chances  of  success.  Thi£  seeding  practice,  however, 
nearly  always  fails  with  grain  crops,  which  are  harvested  so 
much  later.  They  dry  out  the  soil  and  quite  generally  drought 
follows  their  harvest,  making  almost  impossible  the  seed  bed 
preparation  with  disk  or  plow. 

Late  summer  seedings  are  always  risky.  If  abundant  rains 
and  warm  growing  weather  occur,  seeding  the  last  of  August 
may  prove  successful,  but  this  would  be  exceptional.  Alfalfa 
should  have  a growth  of  from  6 to  8 inches  before  freezing 
weather  occurs,  which  means  that  it  is  always  safest  to  sow 
alfalfa  not  later  than  the  month  of  July. 

Seeding  alfalfa  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  has  given  suc- 
cess in  many  instances,  and  yet  it  can  hardly  be  termed  a safe 
way  to  sow  the  crop.  With  abundant  rainfall  and  ideal  soil 
conditions  it  gives  excellent  success.  An  inter-row  seeder  can 
be  used,  or  an  experienced  sower  can  spread  the  seed  by  hand 
or  with  the  use  of  a whirling  seeder.  Unless  care  is  taken  the 
latter  two  methods  may  result  in  an  uneven  stand.  The  corn 
is  cut  for  silage  or  fodder  and  unless  the  stubbles  are  harrowed 
down  the  following  spring  they  may  cause  considerable  trouble 
with  the  first  cutting. 

Must  Help  Young  Alfalfa  Control  Weeds 

With  all  due  credit  to  alfalfa  as  a weed  fighter  it  must  be 
stated  that  during  the  first  six  months  of  its  growth  it  is  helpless 
in  controlling  the  too  numerous  common  weeds  of  the  farm, 
such  as  foxtail,  pigweed,  and  lambsquarter.  A thin  growth  of 
these  common  weeds  during  August  need  not  cause  concern 
but  a heavy,  tall  growth  may  crowd  out  the  alfalfa.  In  the 
latter  case,  clip  with  a mower  or  binder  as  close  to  the  ground 
as  the  height  of  the  alfalfa  will  warrant.  In  other  words,  cut 
as  little  of  the  alfalfa  and  as  much  of  the  weeds  as  possible. 
Haul  the  clippings  off  before  they  smother  the  plants  beneath. 
Attend  to  this  in  August.  Late  fall  clipping,  cutting  or  pastur- 
ing are  dangerous  to  a new  stand  of  alfalfa  and  bring  on  winter- 
killing. 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


21 


Manuring  New  Seedings  Dangerous 

A light  application  of  fine,  well-rotted  manure  is  desirable 
for  the  first  year’s  growth.  Ten  tons  of  rotted  manure  to  the 
acre  as  a topdressing  to  a plowed  field  and  disked  in  will  do 
much  to  insure  a good  stand  of  alfalfa,  but  ten  tons  of  straw 
manure  applied  to  a new  seeding  of  alfalfa  the  first  fall  may 
smother  out  some  of  the  plants  and  thin  the  stand.  After 
alfalfa  has  passed  its  first  winter  it  is  not  so  sensitive  to  smother- 
ing, however,  and  applications  of  six  to  eight  tons  of  rotted 
manure  an  acre  will  prove  a wonderful  help  to  the  next  year’s 
yields. 

Rate  of  Seeding  Varies 

The  amount  of  seed  required  for  a good  stand  is  dependent 
upon  the  quality  of  seed,  the  care  with  which  the  seed  bed  has 
been  prepared,  and  the  condition  of  the  soil  in  regard  to  lime, 
inoculation,  drainage  and  fertility.  Where  alfalfa  is  easy  to 
grow,  less  seed  is  required  than  where  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  getting  good  stands.  Under  our  humid  conditions,  which 
give  weeds  and  blue  grass  more  than  a fair  starts  heavy  rates 
of  from  15  to  20  pounds  of  high-quality  alfalfa  seed  may  be 
required.  This  is  very  well  shown  by  a cooperative  experi- 
mental test  made  by  180  Wisconsin  farmers,  members  of  the 
Alfalfa  Order,  who  for  a period  of  three  years  compared  10-  and 
20-pound  rates  of  seeding.  Eighty-one  per  cent  of  these  prac- 
tical farmers  reported  that  blue  grass  and  weeds  gave  much  more 
trouble  with  the  10-pound  rate  and  that  the  20-pound  seeding 
gave  a larger  yield  of  finer-stemmed  alfalfa  and  consequently 
a hay  of  much  better  quality. 

In  answer  to  the  question,* 4 4 Which  is  the  best  rate  of  seeding 
on  weed-free,  not  acid,  inoculated,  and  carefully  prepared 
soil  ? ’ ’ these  replies  were  received : 

47  per  cent  declared  for  20  pounds  an  acre 

36  “ “ “ 15  “ “ “ 

17  « “ « 10  « ,«  « 

Even  under  excellent  soil  conditions  the  farmers’  verdict  is 
in  favor  of  the  15-  and  20-pound  rates,  but  when  alfalfa  was 
seeded  for  the  first  time,  under  average  farm  conditions  and 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


MANURE  & LIME  M HM  MANURE  l LIME 
NO  INOCULATION  INOCULATION 


with  the  seed  bed  fairly  well  prepared  but  somewhat  weedy, 
the  replies  were  decidedly  for  the  heavy  seedings: 

91  per  cent  declared  in  favor  of  20  pounds  an  acre 
7 “ “ “ “ “ 15  “ “ “ 

2 “ “ “ “ “ 10  “ “ “ 

Naturally,  the  farmer  would  prefer  the  10-pound  rate  because 
of  the  lower  seed  cost,  but  in  spite  of  this  his  judgment  is  for 


FIG.  14 CONVTN GIN G EVIDENCE  OF  THE  VALUE  OF  INOCULATION 

Manure  and  lime,  with  inoculation,  yielded  2,500  pounds  alfalfa  an  acre.  Manure  and 
lime,  with  no  inoculation,  yielded  1,180  pounds  alfalfa  an  acre. 

double  the  amount,  especially  for  those  beginning  alfalfa  grow- 
ing. This  should  not  convey  the  impression  that  a few  extra 
pounds  of  seed  will  make  up  for  a poorly  prepared  seed  bed, 
but  it  does  mean  that  weeds  and  blue  grass  necessitate  heavy 
seeding  for  the  farmers  of  Wisconsin. 

Sometimes  alfalfa  and  clover  may  contain  a high  percentage 
of  seed  which,  because  of  their  hard  impenetrable  surfaces,  do 
not  sprout  quickly.  This  condition  is  quite  effectively  overcome 
by  a process  of  scratching  or  scarification  which  frequently 
enables  the  seed  to  germinate  immediately.  Scarified  seed 
usually  costs  more  than  an  identical  lot  not  scarified,  but  it  is 
worth  more. 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


23 


Timothy  and  Alfalfa  Grow  Well  Together 

Four  years’  experience  and  experiment  have  demonstrated  the 
value  of  sowing  alfalfa  mixed  with  one-fourth  timothy.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  this  would  mean  a mixture  of  5 pounds 
of  timothy  and  15  pounds  of  alfalfa  per  acre.  If  a good  stand 
is  obtained,  the  first  cutting  in  the  year  following  the  seeding 
will  be  mostly  alfalfa,  with  a uniform  sprinkling  of  timothy  just 
heading  out.  At  this  early  stage  timothy  has  a fairly  high 
protein  content  and  good  palatability  and  feeding  value,  es- 
pecially when  grown  in  combination  with  alfalfa.  The  second 
and  third  crops  will  be  pure  alfalfa,  as  the  timothy  makes  little 
recovery  in  growth  after  the  first  cutting. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  combination  is  evident  when 
winterkilling  occurs.  Instead  of  letting  weeds  and  blue  grass 
take  the  place  of  the  dead  plants  where  the  alfalfa  is  thinned 
out  badly,  the  timothy  thickens  and  spreads  out  quickly,  growing 
remarkably  well  on  the  decaying  dead  alfalfa  roots. 

In  a four-year  old  plot  of  alfalfa  and  timothy  on  the  experi- 
ment station  farm  over  50  per  cent  of  the  alfalfa  killed  out 
the  second  winter.  In  the  two  years  following  these  plots  aver- 
aged 6,850  pounds  an  acre  in  two  cuttings.  There  was  absolutely 
no  trouble  with  blue  grass,  the  much  hardier  timothy  having 
taken  the  place  of  the  dead  alfalfa  plants  where  the  alfalfa  was 
seriously  winterkilled.  On  the  upper  end  of  the  plot  where 
winterkilling  was  not  so  serious,  the  timothy  was  less  and  the 
alfalfa  much  more  abundant.  Thus,  the  two  crops  are  ideally 
adapted  for  combined  growth.  Where  alfalfa  thins,  the  hardier 
timothy  thickens,  but  where  the  alfalfa  remains  thick  the  timothy 
keeps  thin.  This  is  one  way  of  solving  the  winterkilling 
problem. 


Causes  and  Remedies  of  Winterkilling 

Alfalfa,  like  clover,  winterkills.  It  is  not  necessarily  the 
cold  winters  with  extremely  low  temperatures  that  do  the 
damage.  It  is  the  open  winters,  with  little  or  no  snow  for 
protection  against  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  which  may 
cause  heaving  of  the  plants  or  fatal  injury  to  the  crowns,  or 
both.  Oftentimes  the  crown  and  root  tissue  are  only  partially 
killed,  in  which  case  the  stand  may  not  be  seriously  thinned  but 
the  feeding  system  of  the  plants  becomes  so  weakened  that  the 


21  Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 

field  has  a sickly  yellow  growth  and  poor  yields  are  obtained. 
Under  these  conditions  the  second  and  third  growths  may  be 
much  healthier  and  more  vigorous  than  the  first  cutting  because 
the  roots  and  crowns  have  had  time  to  recover  from  the  winter 
injury.  This  is  particularly  true  if  favorable  growing  weather 
occurs  during  the  summer  months. 


FIG.  15.— LATE  FALL  CUTTING  WEAKENS  ALFALFA 

The  vigor  and  rapidity  of  spring  growth  is  seriously  impaired  following  late  fall 
cutting  or  pasturing. 

Sample  1,  Out  September  2,  1914.  Height  May  12,  1915,  22  inches. 

Sample  d,  Cut  September  26,  1914.  Height  May  12,  1915,  17  inches. 

A poor,  sickly,  yellow  growth  of  alfalfa  is  often  said  to  be  due 
to  improper  soil  conditions,  whereas  the  trouble  may  be  due 
entirely  to  the  severity  of  the  previous  winter.  Flat  lands  are 
affected  worst  of  all.  On  them  the  water  from  melting  snow 
or  spring  rains  accumulates,  and  when  cold  weather  comes 
smothering  ice  sheets  put  an  end  to  the  alfalfa  plants  beneath. 
These  are  discouraging  facts  which  apply  not  only  to  alfalfa 
but  to  clover  and  our  winter  grains,  wheat  and  rye.  The  best 
remedy  is  to  avoid  late  fall  cutting  and  pasturing. 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


25 


Avoid  Late  Fall  Cutting  and  Pasturing 

Some  winters  are  so  favorable  that  even  with  late  fall  cutting 
or  pasturing  alfalfa  may  not  be  seriously  injured,  but  this 
is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  Alfalfa  should  have  eight 
inches  of  fall  growth  to  hold  the  snow  for  winter  protection. 
In  view  of  the  frequency  of  killing  winters  it  is  poor  policy 
to  take  a chance  on  cutting  or  pasturing  alfalfa  after  September 
10,  as  this  practice  makes  alfalfa  liable  to  winter  injury. 

But  it  still  remains  true  that  even  where  every  regulation 
for  growing  or  handling  alfalfa  has  been  carried  out  it  may 
winterkill.  Where  this  is  of  frequent  occurrence  the  only 
solution  of  the  difficulty  is  to  use  seed  of  the  hardiest  known 
varieties. 

There  is  all  the  difference  in  the  world  between  various  kinds 
of  alfalfa.  Strains  such  as  the  southern  Peruvian  are  very  sensi- 
tive and  will  kill  out  with  our  mildest  winters  while  other 
varieties  may  weather  the  hardest  winters  and  be  ready  for 
business  the  following  spring.  This  does  not  mean  that  any 
variety  of  alfalfa  is  absolutely  winterproof,  but  it  does  mean 
that  there  are  some  kinds  far  superior  to  others  in  their  ability 
to  withstand  severe  open  winter  weather. 

Varieties  That  Are  and  Are  Not  Hardy 

Most  of  the  alfalfa  seed  used  in  Wisconsin  is  of  the  common 
purple-flowered,  western-grown  variety  generally  sold  as 
Montana-,  Kansas-,  or  Dakota-grown,  depending  upon  the  state 
in  which  it  was  produced.  It  is  an  excellent  variety,  fairly 
hardy  and  a good  producer,  with  an  erect  and  upright  habit 
of  growth  which  is  desirable.  There  is  a preference  for  common 
alfalfa  seed  from  the  northern  states  because  northern  strains 
are  claimed  to  be  hardier.  In  a measure  this  claim  is  true. 

Tests  conducted  with  16  samples  of  common  seed  from 
growers  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  California  show  con- 
clusively that  common  seed  produced  in  these  states  is,  on  the 
average,  decidedly  less  hardy  and  more  liable  to  winterkilling 
when  grown  in  Wisconsin  than  Kansas  seed  or  common  seed 
produced  farther  north. 

On  the  other  hand,  trials  made  with  40  samples  of  Kansas- 
and  Nebraska-grown  common  seed  in  comparison  with  20 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


samples  of  Montana-  and  South  Dakota-grown  seed  practically 
indicate  that  they  are  about  equal  in  hardiness.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  these  tests  have  plainly  shown  a distinct 
variation  in  the  hardiness  of  alfalfa  from  seed  produced  by 
different  growers  in  the  same  state  and  even  in  the  same  locality. 
For  example,  we  find  an  occasional  grower  in  New  Mexico  whose 
common  seed  produces  alfalfa  that  is  much  hardier,  than  that 
of  another  grower  in  the  same  locality.  Likewise,  we  find  an 
occasional  grower  in  Montana  whose  common  alfalfa  is  much 
more  tender  than  that  of  the  average  for  that  state. 


FIG.  16.— southern  seed  less  hardy 

Alfalfa  from  common  seed  grown  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  Southern  California 
is  more  liable  to  winterkilling  than  the  hardier  strains  from  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and 
states  farther  north. 


These  facts  should  in  no  way  encourage  Wisconsin  farmers  to 
buy  high-priced  common  seed  with  a fancy  name  attached  and 
for  which  special  claims  of  hardiness  are  made.  Some  strains 
said  to  have  originated  from  very  old  fields  in  the  West  often 
command  an  extra  premium  in  price.  Our  trials  with  these 
strains  have,  with  a few  exceptions  been  unsatisfactory. 

Grimm,  Baltic  and  Cossack  Most  Resistant 

The  most  winter-resistant  alfalfas  thus  far  found  for  Wis- 
consin conditions  are  the  Grimm,  Baltic  and  Cossack.  Exper- 
ience and  experimental  evidence  is  much  more  abundant  on  the 
superiority  of  Grimm  and  Baltic  than  it  is  with  the  Cossack, 
but  our  tests  with  the  latter  variety  have,  so  far,  been  favorable. 
Grimm  is  by  far  the  most  widely  grown  and  the  seed  is  more 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


27 


readily  obtainable  than  that  of  either  the  Cossack  or  Baltic 
alfalfa.  However,  the  acreage  of  Cossack  is  being  rapidly  ex- 
tended in  the  seed-producing  sections  of  the  West.  The  only 
characteristic  which  makes  these  alfalfas  superior  to  the  common 
is  their  extreme  hardiness,  which  makes  them  more  permanent 


FIG.  17.— VARIEGATED  STRAINS  HARDIER  THAN  COMMON 

Following  hard  winters  Grimm,  Baltic  and  Cossack  grow  more  vigorously  and  show 
less  winterkilling  than  common  alfalfa. 


in  stand  than  common  alfalfa  and  better  yielders  where  the 
common  strains  winterkill. 

Hard  to  Get  Genuine  Seed 

The  good  qualities  of  Grimm,  Baltic  and  Cossack  alfalfa  are 
often  severely  discounted  because  of  the  difficulty  of  getting 
genuine  seed.  No  one  can  distinguish  the  seeds  of  any  of  these 
varieties  from  those  of  common.  The  result  is  that  growers  and 
seedsmen  may  intentionally  or  unintentionally  sell  common  seed 
for  the  much  higher-priced  Grimm,  Baltic  or  Cossack,  or  they 
may  adulterate  these  hardy  varieties  with  cheaper  seed.  This 
makes  the  purchase  of  any  special  alfalfa  very  difficult  and 
the  greatest  of  care  needs  to  be  exercised.  Unless  these  varieties 
can  be  secured  from  reliable  sources  and  with  affidavits  of 
genuineness  from  both  the  grower  of  the  seed  and  the  seller, 
giving  full  pedigree  and  origin  of  the  seed,  it  is  probably  wise 
to  grow  common  alfalfa.  The  Alfalfa  Order  has  been  testing 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


out  hardy  seed  of  all  varieties  from  numerous  western  growers 
and  other  sources. 

How  to  Distinguish  Hardy  Varieties  in  Field 

Grimm,  Baltic  and  Cossack  are  quite  similar  in  manner  of 
growth  and  field  appearances.  They  are  often  classed  as  varie- 
gated alfalfas  because,  when  they  come  into  full  blossom,  they 
have  a considerable  percentage  of  mixed  colored  flowers  ranging 
all  the  way  from  white,  light  yellow  and  green  to  smoky  hues 


TABLE  18— GENUINE  VS.  NON-GENUINE  SEED 
It  is  difficult  to  get  genuine  true-to-name  seed  of  the  hardy  varieties. 

of  brown,  purple  and  blue.  This  condition  is  particularly  out- 
standing in  the  Cossack  variety,  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  most  of  the  blossoms  of  the  three  kinds  are  pure  purple  and 
similar  to  common.  It.  is  only  when  the  plants  bloom 
abundantly  that  variegated  alfalfas  can  be  distinguished  from 
common  by  flower  characteristics.  Quite  often  common  alfalfa 
has  some  variegated  flowers  but  seldom  are  they  found  in  such 
abundance  as  in  the  true  Grimm,  Baltic,  and  Cossack.  It 
should  be  particularly  understood  that  where  the  varietal  term 
‘ ‘variegated”  is  used  in  this  bulletin  it  refers  only  to  the  Grimm, 
Baltic  and  Cossack. 

At  the  cutting  stage  it  is  often  noticeable  that  the  variegated 
alfalfas  have  a darker  green  foliage,  a denser  growth  and  a 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


29 


greater  tendency  io  lodge  than  the  common  kinds.  Following 
hard  winters  the  variegated  varieties,  in  addition  to  manifesting 
less  winterkilling,  often  show  a much  more  rapid  early  spring 
growth  than  the  common.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fall  growth 
of  the  variegated  alfalfas  is  often  noticeably  shorter  than  that 
of  common.  Like  almost  all  hardy  alfalfas,  after  the  third 
cutting  they  develop  a protective  dormant  condition  in  prepara- 
tion for  the  oncoming  winter,  while  the  common,  with  favorable 
weather,  may  make  a rapid  and  tall  fall  growth.  Oftentimes  the 
variegated  alfalfas  do  not  grow  so  tall  the  first  season  as  does  the 
common. 

Evidence  from  members  of  the  Alfalfa  Order  shows  plainly 
that  the  Grimm  variety  is  more  liable  to  injury  by  summer 
drought  the  first  season  than  is  common.  Six  reports  stated 
that  Grimm  seeded  adjacent  to  common  dried  out  the  first  season 
and  was  a complete  failure  while  the  common  brought  forth  an 
excellent  stand  with  The  onset  of  fall  rains.  This  probably 
applies  to  the  Baltic  and  Cossack  also. 

Considerable  credit  has  been  given  to  the  so-called  branched 
root  system  of  the  hardy  variegated  varieties.  This  has  led 
to  the  popular  belief  that  all  plants  of  common  are  taprooted, 
and  that  all  plants  of  Grimm,  Baltic  or  Cossack  have  distinctly 
branched  roots.  This  opinion  is  entirely  mistaken  and  not  in 
accordance  with  the  facts.  Common  alfalfa  from  the  western 
states  will  have  both  branched  roots  and  taproots  when  grown 
in  Wisconsin,  and  such  is  exactly  the  case  with  Grimm,  Baltic 
or  Cossack.  The  percentage  and  degree  of  branching  in  the 
latter  three  varieties,  however,  are  greater  than  in  the  common. 

Another  difference  in  the  variegated  alfalfas  and  the  common 
strains,  which  is  not  very  noticeable  except  on  close  comparison 
and  inspection  in  thin  fields^over  one  year  old,  is  the  greater  size 
and  more  widely  branched  character  of  the  crowns  of  the  Grimm, 
Baltic  and  Cossack.  In  both  spring  and  fall  the  growth  of 
the  stems  and  leaves  of  these*  varieties  is  likely  to  be  more  squatty 
and  spreading  in  appearance  than  the  more  erect  growth  of  the 
common. 

It  is  important  to  appreciate  that  these  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics of  variegated  and  common  alfalfa  are  only  manifested 
during  times  of  certain  climatic  conditions.  With  an  over- 
abundance of  rain  or  in  extreme  drought,  variegation  of  the 
blossom  may  not  be  evident,  due  to  a lack  of  sufficient  bloom. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


Likewise,  after  mild  winters  the  spring  growth  and  stand  may 
be  identical  with  common. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  distinguishing  hardy  variegated  varie- 
ties from  common  alfalfa  is  not  an  easy  matter  under  field  condi- 
tions in  Wisconsin.  If  the  two  kinds  are  sown  side  by  side  at 
the  same  time  and  in  the  same  way,  the  variegated  variety 
should  show  its  superiority  in  hardiness  following  the  advent 
of  a hard  winter.  To  ascertain  the  reliability  of  any  source  of 
hardy  seed  it  may  be  wise  to  seed  a small  strip  of  common  for 
comparison.  It  is  important  to  realize,  however,  that  neither 
Grimm,  Baltic  nor  Cossack  are  absolutely  winterproof,  and 
under  certain  conditions  they  will  winterkill,  though  seldom, 
if  ever,  to  the  same  extent  as  common. 

New  Seedings  of  Common  Alfalfa  Are  Hardy 

In  order  to  avoid  disappointment  to  those  who  may  try  out 
any  or  all  of  the  three  variegated  varieties  in  comparison  with 
common,  the  writers  wish  to  emphasize  that  there  may  be  little 
difference  in  yields  and  general  appearance  the  first  year  after 
seeding.  It  is  only  under  unusually  severe  winter  conditions 
that  the  variegated  will  demonstrate  its  superiority  in  a one- 
year  trial.  It  is  a strange  fact  that  average  common  alfalfa 
from  Kansas  and  states  farther  north  is  much  hardier  the  first 
winter  than  at  any  time  later  in  its  career. 

An  example  of  this  fact  is  shown  in  a test  on  the  experiment 
Station  farm  where  a plot  was  seeded  on  June  23,  1915,  with 
Montana-grown  alfalfa  in  the  same  manner,  under  the  same 
soil  conditions,  with  the  same  strain  of  seed  (taken  out  of  the 
same  bag)  as  a similar  plot  not  more  than  three  rods  distant, 
which  was  sown  June  27,  1914.  Both  these  plots  had  excellent 
stands  in  the  fall  of  1915,  but  in  the  spring  of  1916,  76  per  cent 
of  the  plants  in  the  two-year  old  plot  had  winterkilled  while  of 
the  new  seeding  only  9 per  cent  had  winterkilled. 

Just  why  old  stands  of  common  alfalfa  winterkill  more 
seriously  than  new  seedings  is  difficult  to  explain,  but  that  it  is 
a fact  is  further  supported  by  165  reports  from  members  of  the 
Alfalfa  Order  in  1916,  three-fourths  of  whom  declared  their 
old  stands  winterkilled  much  w^orse  than  the  new  seedings  of 
1915.  Kesults  like  this  would  indicate  that  where  alfalfa  is 
grown  instead  of  clover  in  three-  or  four-year  rotations  the 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


31 


high-priced  hardy  Grimm,  Baltic  and  Cossack  may  not,  in  many 
places,  be  essential.  These  varieties  are  primarily  of  valne 
where  permanence  of  stand  is  desired. 

When  to  Cut  Alfalfa 

No  exact  date  can  be  given  for  the  first,  second  or  third  cut- 
tings but  a good  indication  to  follow  is  the  growth  of  the  little 
shoots  or  sprouts  originating  at  the  crowns.  When  the  field 
begins  to  bloom  quite  abundantly  an  examination  at  the  base  of 
the  stems  will  show  little  sprouts  that  later  produce  the  next 
crop.  When  these  are  very  numerous  and  at  least  an  inch  in 


TABLE  19.— CUTTING  TOO  EARLY  KILLS 

Cutting  alfalfa  too  early  is  bad.  The  succeeding  growth  is  often  yellow  and  so 
severely  checked  that  weeds  and  grasses  spring  up  and  choke  out  the  alfalfa. 


height  the  cutting  time  is  at  hand  if  there  is  favorable  curing 
weather.  If  not,  harvesting  can  be  delayed  until  fair  weather 
occurs.  Where  the  delay  is  not  too  long  no  injury  to  the  stand 
or  growth  of  the  next  crop  will  occur  but  only  two  cuttings 
may  be  obtained.  This  is  less  serious  than  the  harm  which 
accompanies  cutting  alfalfa  too  early  and  which  often  causes 
such  a serious  thinning  of  the  stand  that  weeds  and  blue  grass 
take  possession  of  the  field.  Cutting  too  early  may  also  result 
in  a weak,  short,  yellow  succeeding  growth  and  a shorter-lived 
alfalfa  field.  Better  have  the  first  cutting  too  late  than  too 
early.  Avoid  close  cutting.  Leave  a stubble  of  about  two 
inches. 

In  favorable  seasons,  three  crops  of  alfalfa  may  be  obtained, 
but  as  a protection  against  winterkilling  the  last  crop  should 
not  be  taken  after  September  10.  On  farms  with  large  acreages 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


only  two  cuttings  are  planned  for,  on  account  of  the  difficulty 
of  cutting  all  the  alfalfa  at  the  right  stage.  With  smaller 
acreages  three  cuttings  can  often  be  taken  to  good  advantage. 

Needs  Thorough  Curing 

To  get  the  best  quality  of  hay,  alfalfa  should  be  cut  on  a day 
that  promises  to  be  fair.  Do  not,  under  any  circumstances, 


FIG.  20.— CURING  IN  WINDROWS  SAVES  LEAVES 
Alfalfa  hay  is  readily  raked  into  windrows  with  side  delivery  rakes. 


plan  to  leave  alfalfa  cure  in  the  swath,  like  timothy.  At  least 
half  the  feeding  value  of  alfalfa  is  in  the  leaves.  With  their 
thin  and  much  exposed  surfaces  they  dry  out  quickly,  become 
brittle,  and  are  lost  in  handling.  To  get  alfalfa  or  clover  hay 
cured  uniformly  and  with  the  least  loss  of  leaves  the  crop 
should  not  remain  in  the  swath  longer  than  is  necessary  to  be- 
come well  wilted.  This  may  require  four  or  five  hours  after 
cutting  in  hot  dry  weather,  or  one  or  more  days  if  the  weather 
is  cool,  damp  or  cloudy.  The  wilted  hay  can  be  raked  and 
bunched  without  serious  loss  of  leaves  into  cocks  of  about  100 


Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin 


33 


pounds  each.  Larger  cocks  may  heat  and  mold  in  the  center. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  alfalfa  hay,  damp  with  dew  or 
rain  be  bunched,  raked  or  stored.  Outside  moisture  of  this 
nature  will  invariably  cause  molding,  or  severe  heating,  or  both. 

Given  favorable  drying  weather  alfalfa  will  be  ready  to  store 
two  days  after  bunching.  In  cool,  damp  weather  the  curing 
process  may  require  a week,  in  which  case  the  bunches  may  need 
to  be  moved  in  order  to  give  the  plants  beneath  a chance  to  grow. 
Canvas  caps,  while  not  so  popular  now  as  they  used  to  be  in 


FIG.  21.— HAY  LOADERS  FOR  HASTE 
Alfalfa  hay  is  readily  handled  with  labor-saving  machinery. 


the  days  of  small  alfalfa  acreages  and  more  abundant  labor, 
are  a wonderful  protection  against  rain.  An  hour  or  so  before 
loading  the  cocks  should  be  spread  apart  and  opened  to  the  wind 
and  sun  to  free  the  interior  from  any  surplus  moisture. 

The  hay  is  then  ready  to  be  loaded  with  a drum  hay  loader  or 
pitched  by  hand.  With  this  method  the  brightest  green  hay  is 
obtained  with  the  least  loss  of  leaves.  The  curing  process  which 
goes  on  in  the  bunches  is  uniform,  since  the  life  processes  of  the 
wilted  plants  continue  and  the  moisture  moves  up  the  stems  and 
is  passed  off  through  the  leaves.  However,  with  the  scarcity 
of  farm  labor,  farmers  having  a considerable  alfalfa  acreage 
prefer  to  take  risks  on  the  weather  for  the  sake  of  employing 
less  hand  labor  and  more  rapid  haymaking  machinery. 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  308 


Side  Delivery  Rakes  for  Windrowing 

One  plan  of  alfalfa  haying  is  to  allow  the  cutting  to  wilt  in 
the  swath,  after  which  it  is  raked  in  windrows  with  a side  de- 
livery rake.  Here  it  is  left  to  cure  out  thoroughly,  but  a few 
hours  before  loading  with  a hay  loader  the  windrows  are  turned 
bottom  side  up  with  a side  delivery  to  allow  the  hay  next  to  the 
ground  to  dry  out.  If  no  rain  occurs  an  excellent  quality  of 
green  hay  is  secured.  In  the  event  of  rain  the  windrows  are 
turned  several  times  after  fair  weather  returns  to  permit  thor- 
ough drying.  This,  of  course,  ruins  the  green  color  of  the 
hay  and,  to  some  extent,  its  feeding  value,  but  experience  has 
demonstrated  that  alfalfa  will  stand  much  more  rain  than  either 
timothy  or  clover  and  still  make  good  hay. 

Brown  Alfalfa  Hay 

Alfalfa  thoroughly  cured  in  the  field  will  maintain  its  bright 
green  color  when  stored  in  the  mow  or  stack.  When  it  is  stored 
while  still  a little  green,  the  stems  contain  a considerable 
amount  of  plant  juice  and  heating  and  fermentation  occur  in 
the  stack,  resulting  in  a very  aromatie  and  palatable  brown  hay. 
It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  store  alfalfa  before  it  is  thoroughly 
cured,  but  as  a precaution  against  excessive  heating  and  molding 
it  is  well  to  distribute  the  hay  at  the  time  of  storage  over  several 
bents  in  the  barn,  instead  of  piling  it  high  in  one  mow. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  positively  dangerous  to  store 
any  alfalfa  hay  if  it  contains  moisture  from  dew  or  rain. 
Spontaneous  combustion  resulting  in  fires  may  occur,  or  at  the 
least,  there  may  be  a molding  and  charring  which  injures  the 
feeding  value  of  the  hay.  The  interior  moisture  of  the  stems 
and  leaves  of  ordinarily  cured  hay  will  not,  as  a rule,  cause  this 
difficulty.  It  is  the  outside  moisture  on  the  hay  at  the  time  of 
storing  that  is  particularly  dangerous. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University 
H.  L.  Bussell,  Dean  and  Director 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 

F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

G.  H.  Benkendorf,  Dairy  Husbandry 
T.  L.  Bewick,  Agr.  Extension 

G.  Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
P.  W.  Boutwell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
G.  M.  Briggs,  Agronomy 

D.  S.  Bullock,  Animal  Husbandry 
L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiohe,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 
Bernice  Dodge,  Home  Economics 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Hus- 
bandry 

E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 

E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
P.  N.  Harmer,  Soils 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Agr.  Education 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
Ellen  Hillstrom,  Home  Economics 
A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor ; in  charge  of  Agr. 
Journalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Hus- 

bandry 

J.  A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  'Education 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
Nellie  Kedzie  Jones,  Home  Economics 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
Jean  Krueger,  Home  Economics 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 

E.  L.  Luther,  Field  Supervisor  of  Extension 

Courses  and  Schools 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 
Hazel  Manning,  Home  Economics 
Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics 

H.  L.  McMurry,  Economic  Entomology 
J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 

J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 
R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  F.  Potter,  Horticulture 


K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Expt.  Station 


G.  Richards,  Soils 

R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 
Celestine  Schmit,  Home  Economics 
M.  H.  Scott,  Animal  Husbandry 

H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

H.  W.  Ullsperger,  Soils  ( Sturgeon  Bay ) 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  C.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 
A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Ento- 
mology 

J.  F.  Wojta,  State  Leader  of  Agricultural  Rep- 
resentatives 

A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 

W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology,  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

Freda  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Gladys  Baker,  Agr.  Journalism 
Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  W.  Brann,  Horticulture,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  C.  Bryan,  Soils,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
A.  J.  Cramer,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  R.  B.  Elliott,  Agr.  Engineering 

N.  R.  Ellis,  Agr.  Chemistry 

J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

W.  E.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

E.  G.  Gross,  Agr.  Chemistry 

J.  I.  Hambleton,  Economic  Entomology 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 

J.  B.  Hayes,  Poultry  Husbandry 
C.  S.  Hean,  Agr.  Library 

E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

H.  W.  Hollard,  Dairy  Husbandry 

O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 

S.  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 
J.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 

C.  S.  MacBride,  Dairy  Husbandry 
S.  W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 
Maude  Miller,  Plant  Pathology 
R.  O.  Nafziger,  Agr.  Jour. 

F.  W.  Parker,  Soils 

D.  H.  Reid,  Poultry  Husbandry 
F.  X.  Ritger,  Executive  Secretary 
Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  H.  Sommer,  Agr.  Chemistry 
David  Smith,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Otto  Stader,  Veterinary  Science 
Barnett  Sure,  Chemistry 

W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


Bulletin  309 


December,  1919 


MARSH 

SOILS 

A.R.WHITSON 
H.W  ULLSPERGER 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


DIGEST 


Marsh  lands  in  Wisconsin  vary  in  agricultural  value.  To  know 
which  classes  of  marsh  lands  are  valuable,  which  can  be  drained, 
and  those  which  are  capable  of  high  production  after  draining,  are 
the  problems  facing  the  farmers  who  own  the  marshes  of  Wisconsin. 

Page  3. 

The  steps  necessary  to  reclaim  marsh  soils  are:  drainage,  break- 

ing and  preparing  the  seed  bed,  proper  fertilization,  and  crop  selec- 
tion. Each  of  these  is  important  to  the  marsh  farmer’s  chance  for 
success.  Pages  3 to  7. 

Different  marsh  soils  require  different  fertilizers.  The  soils  differ 
in  chemical  composition  and  require  different  kinds  of  fertilizer.  A 
chemical  analysis  is  helpful,  but  actual  experiment  is  often  needed 
to  find  out  what  fertilizers  should  be  applied.  Pages  7 to  18. 

* 

A wide  variety  of  crops  can  be  grown  on  Wisconsin  marsh  soils. 
The  number  of  crops  which  can  be  grown  is  limited  at  first.  Soy- 
beans, buckwheat,  and  flax  are  the  best  first  crops  in  middle  and 
upper  Wisconsin.  Corn  and  rye  are  often  grown  in  southern  Wis- 
consin as  first  crops.  Pages  18  to  25. 

Crops  should  be  adapted  to  marsh  soils  in  different  sections  of  the 
state.  There  are  three  such  sections:  southeastern  Wisconsin,  the  light 
soils  area,  and  north  central  Wisconsin.  Pages  25  to  28. 

Crop  rotations  are  desirable  oil  marsh  soils.  They  make  for  higher 
yields  and  aid  in  preventing  insect  pests  and  crop  diseases. 

Pages  28  to  29. 

Dairy  farming,  truck  farming,  stock  raising,  or  combinations  of 
the  three  are  the  best  types  of  farming  to  follow  on  marsh  soils. 
Wisconsin  marshes  are  not  adapted  to  grain  farming.  Pages  29  to  32. 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 

Five  factors  determine  largely  whether  or  not  it  will  pay  to 
drain  and  farm  marsh  land.  These  are:  (1)  the  cost  of  thor- 
ough drainage,  (2)  the  cost  of  clearing  and  breaking,  (3)  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  soil,  (4)  the  danger  of  frost  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  and  (5)  whether  the  farm  is  all 
marsh  or  partly  upland. 

Thorough  drainage  usually  costs  from  $20  to  $35  an  acre. 
Clearing  and  breaking  cost  between  $5  and  $25  an  acre,  de- 
pending largely  on  whether  the  marsh  is  open  or  timbered. 

Marsh  lands  vary  greatly  in  their  chemical  composition — 
some  need  only  to  be  drained  to  grow  good  crops  while  others 
require  special  treatment. 

Marsh  soils  are  subject  to  frost,  which  lessens  their  adapt- 
ability to  corn  and  potatoes  in  the  central  part  of  the  state  and 
prohibits  success  with  these  crops  in  the  northern  counties. 

When  a farm  is  all  or  nearly  all  marsh  it  is  im- 
perative to  drain  thoroughly  a portion  of  it,  if  not  the  entire 
acreage.  On  many  farms  having  comparatively  small  marsh 
areas  drainage  is  often  overlooked  because  there  is  sufficient 
upland  to  meet  the  cropping  needs  and  the  marsh  is  left  as 
pasture.  Whenever  the  returns  of  such  pasture  lands  are 
carefully  considered,  it  becomes  plain  that  they  would  prove 
much  more  profitable  if  made  to  grow  “tame”  crops  of  high 
feeding  value  rather  than  wild  grasses  of  low  feeding  value. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  state  it  will  pay,  as  a rule,  to 
drain  all  mucks  and  shallow  peats  having  clay  subsoils.  Well- 
decomposed  peats  underlain  by  clay  are  much  better  than  raw 
peats.  Raw  peats  underlain  by  sand  are  of  less  agricultural 
value. 


How  to  Manage  Marsh  Soils 

In  managing  marsh  soils  four  important  factors  must  be  con- 
sidered : (1)  drainage,  (2)  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  (3)  use 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


of  manure  and  other  fertilizers,  and  (4)  selection  of  the  proper 
crops. 

Drainage  the  First  Step.  The  first  step  in  the  development 
of  any  marsh  land  is  to  drain  it.  In  case  of  extensive  areas 
large  main  ditches  requiring  the  use  of  a dredge  must  he  dug. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  that  land  owners  cooperate 
by  organizing  a drainage  district  or  by  having  the  county 
drainage  board  take  charge  of  the  work.  In  case  of  smaller 
areas  it  frequently  can  be  done  by  mutual  agreement  between 
two  or  three  adjoining  owners. 

Both  Surface  and  Under  Drainage  Needed.  Sometimes  the 
construction  of  ditches  around  the  edge  of  a marsh  tract  will 
reduce  the  wetness  of  the  marsh  so  that  crops  can  be  grown 
without  further  ditching.  Where  the  offending  water  is  seep- 
age a deep,  rather  than  a large,  drain  is  necessary,  and  in  such 
cases  tile  are  cheaper  than  open  ditches.  These  cut-off  drains 
carry  away  the  water  from  the  surrounding  higher  land,  and 
thus  prevent  it  from  reaching  the  marsh.  Usually  both  ditches 
and  tile  are  necessary  on  the  marsh  itself. 

Tile  Are  Better  Than  Surface  Ditches.  When  the  surface 
soil  is  peat  or  muck  three  feet  or  less  in  depth  and  underlain 
by  sand,  small  open  ditches  eight  rods  apart  will  sometimes  give 
sufficient  drainage  for  most  crops.  But  when  the  subsoil  is 
clay  the  laterals  must  not  be  more  than  six  rods  apart,  and  in 
some  cases  less,  to  give  thorough  drainage.  Under  these  con- 
ditions tile  should  always  be  used  since  they  give  better  drain- 
age than  the  open  ditches.  Another  advantage  of  tile  is  that 
they  are  covered  so  that  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  tillage 
of  the  land.  In  cases  where  the  peat  or  muck  is  three  and  a half 
feet  or  more  in  depth,  tile  should  be  used  and  should  be  placed 
quite  deep — from  three  and  one-half  to  four  and  one-half  feet. 
This  is  done  for  two  reasons, — the  settling  of  the  surface  will 
not  bring  the  tile  too  near  the  top  of  the  ground,  and  a wider 
strip  of  land  can  be  drained  by  each  line  of  tile. 

Tile  Make  Cultivation  Easier.  The  use  of  tile  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  do  away  with  open  ditches,  and  makes  the  land  easier 
to  cultivate.  Because  muck  and  peat  lands  usually  shrink  and 
settle  considerably  when  drained,  it  is  often  desirable  to  use 
open  ditches  for  three  or  four  years.  These  may,  in  some  in- 
stances, be  left  for  surface  drains,  or  they  may  be  filled  when 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


5 


new  ditches  for  the  tile  are  dug  beside  them.  Experienced 
drainage  men  usually  prefer  digging  new  ditches  to  cleaning 
out  old  ditches  for  the  purpose  of  laying  tile  in  them. 

Generally  drainage  is  of  the  greatest  service  in  a marsh  in 
the  spring,  since  at  that  time  the  free  water  in  the  cultivated 
soil  needs  to  be  removed  by  deep  drainage  to  allow  the  roots 
of  crops  to  go  deep  into  the  subsoil  and  become  well  established. 

Good  Drainage  Favors  Deep  Rooting.  Sometimes  during 
dry  summers  crops  planted  on  poorly  drained  marshes  actually 
suffer  for  want  of  water.  This  condition  leads  many  to  infer 
that  drainage  has  been  harmful.  The  real  fact  is  that  when 
crops  are  planted  on  poorly  drained  marshes  the  roots  establish 
themselves  in  the  surface  area,  which  soon  dries  out  during  a 
dry  period.  Strangely  enough,  the  lowering  of  the  water  table 
during  a wet  spring  actually  increases  the  amount  of  water 
available  to  the  plants  later  in  the  season.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  early  drainage  develops  a deep  root  system. 

Drainage  Not  Complete  in  Districts.  In  most  drainage  dis- 
tricts only  the  outlet  ditches  have  been  put  in  and  these  are 
paid  for  by  the  sale  of  bonds,  which  constitute  a lien  on  the 
land  and  must  be  paid  during  the  following  15  to  20  years. 
Complete  drainage  must  be  installed  later  by  the  owner.  The 
man  who  is  thinking  of  purchasing  land  in  a drainage  district, 
therefore,  should  determine  the  full  cost  of  its  complete  drain- 
age as  well  as  its  state  of  fertility  and  crop  adaptation.* 

Clearing  and  Preparation  of  Seed  Bed 

Clearing  Helps  Development.  The  native  growth  of  trees  on 
marsh  lands  must  be  removed.  Ordinarily  their  shallow  root 
systems  make  this  clearing  very  simple.  There  are  also  con- 
siderable areas,  especially  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  state, 
on  which  there  is  a very  deep  growth  of  sphagnum  moss.  Other 
marshes  support  heavy  growths  of  grass.  It  is  usually  diffi- 
cult or  impossible  to  plow  such  lands  properly  before  this 
growth  has  been  removed. 

Burn  Moss  and  Rank  Grass.  The  easiest  way  to  remove  deep 
moss  and  thick  grass  growth  is  to  burn  it.  Ordinarily  it  is 
not  considered  desirable  to  burn  marshes  more  than  is  abso- 
lutely necessary,  but  in  such  cases  it  cannot  be  avoided.  There 

*See  Bulletin  284  for  complete  discussion  of  drainage. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin7  309 


is  much  less  objection  to  burning  on  marsh  lands  than  on  up- 
lands, provided  only  as  much  of  the  surface  is  burned  as  is 
necessary  to  permit  of  good  breaking.  Indeed,  the  ash  from 
this  shallow  surface  burning  increases  greatly  the  productivity 
of  these  lands  for  the  first  few  years.  Where  the  moss  has  con- 
considerable  depth  and  on  boggy  marshes,  burning  is  possible 
only  during  a dry  season.  In  the  hot  summer  months  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  fire. 


FIG.  1.— A PROFITABLE  CROP  ON  A PEAT  MARSH 

Two  tons  of  clover  and  timothy  hay  were  harvested  from  an  acre  of  raw  peat  marsh 
in  Price  county.  The  field  had  been  seeded  that  spring. 

Breaking  Should  Be  Done  Well.  The  summer  and  early  fall 
are  the  best  times  for  the  plowing,  whether  burning  is  neces- 
sary or  not.  Where  the  soil  is  mucky  a good  stubble  plow  can 
generally  be  used  with  success.  Where  the  soil  is  peaty,  how- 
ever, a good  breaking  plow  with  very  long  moldboard  must  be 
used,  and  the  wider  the  plow  the  more  successfully  can  the 
furrow-slice  be  turned.  On  such  lands  a tractor  is  usually 
better  motor  power  than  are  horses.  The  weight  of  such  a 
plow  helps  in  compacting  the  soil  so  as  to  secure  a firmer  seed 
bed.  This  compacting  of  the  peaty  soil  doubtless  hastens  its 
rotting,  hastens  the  necessary  chemical  decomposition  to  estab- 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


? 

lish  fertility,  and  greatly  improves  its  tilth.  Often  a disk  plow 
does  excellent  work  after  the  first  breaking. 

This,  of  course,  must  not  be  understood  as  meaning  that 
marsh  lands  which  are  merely  wet  clay  soils  and  contain  con- 
siderable well-decomposed  organic  matter  should  be  compacted 
in  this  way.  When  these  soils  are  too  compact  and  ‘ ‘ tight,  ’ ’ as 
is  often  the  case,  they  should  be  plowed  with  a horse  plow  and 
left  undisturbed  after  drainage  and  plowing  (if  plowed  in  the 
fall)  so  as  to  allow  the  action  of  the  frost  to  produce  the 
granulation  necessary  to  good  tilth. 

A Good  Seed  Bed  Desirable.  During  the  following  spring 
the  peat  or  muck  breaking  should  be  harrowed  three  or  four 
times  with  a cutaway  or  full  disk  harrow  to  secure  a good  seed 
bed.  Nearly  all  grain  should  be  planted  with  a drill  about 
two  or  three  inches  deep,  in  order  to  secure  a good  supply  of 
moisture.  Small  seeds  such  as  clover  and  timothy,  which  can- 
not force  their  way  through  much  soil,  should  be  planted  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  deep.  The  compacting  of  the  surface 
soil  even  after  seeding  is  very  important  in  case  of  small  seeds. 

When  the  original  sod  has  been  completely  decomposed 
through  cultivation  and  cropping,  peats  and  mucks  usually 
become  very  loose.  It  should  be  remembered  that  looseness  or 
mellowness  is  not  the  only  condition  indicating  a favorable  seed 
bed.  Aside  from  having  a certain  degree  of  mellowness,  a good 
seed  bed  should  have  a certain  degree  of  firmness  or  compact- 
ness as  well.  Thus,  when  a peat  or  muck  becomes  too  loose, 
it  should  be  rolled,  even  before  planting.  Rolling  after  plant- 
ing is  also  recommended. 

If  marsh  soils  are  to  continue  in  their  present  state  of  pro- 
ductivity, more  thorough  and  better  methods  of  cultivation  must 
be  practiced.  A small  tract  of  marsh  land  properly  managed 
and  tilled  will  give  a larger  net  return  for  the  amount  of  money 
expended  than  a larger  acreage  poorly  cultivated. 

Fertilizer  Needs  of  Marsh  Soils 

Marsh  Soils  of  Three  Types.  In  order  that  we  may  under- 
stand clearly  the  fertilizer  needs  of  marsh  lands  it  is  necessary 
that  we  discriminate  between  the  different  soils  included  in  the 
term  “marsh  soils,”  and  that  we  know  their  physical  and  chem- 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


ical  characteristics.  Three  distinct  types  of  marsh  soils  are  rec- 
ognized— peat,  muck,  and  “marsh-border  soils. ” 

Peat.  A peat  is  a soil  high  in  organic  matter,  usually  run- 
ning from  75  to  95  per  cent,  but  occasionally  as  low  as  50  per 
cent.  The  difference  between  the  per  cent  of  organic  matter 
and  100  per  cent  indicates  the  amount  of  silty  or  earthy  mate- 
rial in  the  soil.  The  organic  matter  of  peat  may  be  in  differ- 
ent stages  of  decomposition ; that  is,  it  may  be  quite  fibrous  and 
brown  in  color,  or  it  may  be  well-decomposed  and  black  in 
color. 

Muck.  Muck  soils  are  those  having  smaller  amounts  of  or- 
ganic matter  and  correspondingly  larger  amounts  of  earthy 
matter.  For  purposes  of  classification,  15  per  cent  of  total  or- 
ganic matter  may  be  taken  as  the  lower  limit  and  50  per  cent 
as  the  higher  limit  in  mucks,  so  that  the  percentage  of  silty 
or  earthy  matter  varies  from  50  to  85  per  cent.  The  organic 
matter  in  mucks  is  usually  much  more  fully  decomposed  than 
that  of  peat  and  seldom  shows  any  vegetable  tissue  except  that 
of  recent  growth. 

“Marsh-border  Soils.”  The  term  “marsh-border  soils”  is 
used  to  apply  to  the  soils  which  occur  on  the  border  of  marshes 
where  the  change  from  marsh  to  upland  conditions  takes  place, 
and  which  vary  in  organic  matter  from  5 to  15  per  cent.  The 
organic  matter  in  these  soils  is  usually  black  humus,  shallow 
in  depth,  and  the  subsoil  a blue  or  mottled  clay  or  sand.  With 
them  should  be  grouped  the  shallow  marsh  soils  low  in  organic 
matter  occurring  along  streams  or  in  depressions  in  upland. 

All  Marsh  Soils  Are  Not  Sour.  It  is  commonly  inferred  that 
because  lowlands  are,  or  have  been,  wet  or  water-soaked,  they 
are  sour  or  acid.  This  is  not  necessarily  true.  Many  very  wet 
marsh  soils  have  no  trace  whatever  of  acid.  In  limestone  areas 
lowlands  receiving  the  drainage  from  the  surrounding  upland 
containing  lime  are  usually  not  acid,  or  are  only  slightly  acid. 
This  is  the  case  in  the  marshes  of  the  eastern  and  southern 
parts  of  the  state.  Marshes  not  in  limestone  sections,  like  those 
of  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the  state,  are  very  acid, 
and  some  marsh  soils  of  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
state  are  also  acid. 

Marsh  Soils  Differ  in  Weight  and  Chemical  Composition. 

Each  of  the  types  of  marsh  soil  have  marked  characteristics  in 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


9 


regard  to  weight  and  chemical  composition.  Peat,  when  dry, 
weighs  but  12  to  20  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  Muck  soil  weighs 
from  40  to  50  pounds,  while  the  “ marsh-border 9 * soils  often 
run  from  60  to  80  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  The  chemical  com- 
position also  varies,  especially  in  regard  to  nitrogen,  which 
shows  about  the  same  variation  that  the  organic  matter  does. 

Marsh  and  Upland  Soils  Compared.  Table  I gives  the  av- 
erage amount  of  the  three  most  important  elements  found  in 
clay,  silt  loam,  sandy  loam,  and  the  three  types  of  marsh  soils, 
expressed  in  percentage,  and  as  pounds  to  the  acre  to  the  depth 
of  about  eight  inches. 


Table  I Chemical  Composition  of  Marsh  and  Upland  Soils 


Soil 

Percentage 

Pounds  per  acre  of  8 inches 
surface 

Nitrogen 

Phos- 

phorus 

Po- 

tassium 

Nitrogen 

Phos- 

phorus 

Po- 

tassium 

Clay  and  silt  loam . . 

0.15 

0.08 

2.50 

3,000 

1,600 

50,000 

Sandy  loam 

0.10 

0.04 

1,00 

2,500 

1,000 

20.000 

Peat 

3.00 

0.15 

0.20 

10,500 

525 

700 

Muck 

1.00 

0.10 

0.75 

10,000 

1,090 

7.500 

\ 

0.05 

1.00 

1,000 

20,000 

Marsh  border” -< 

0.50 

to 

to 

10,000 

to 

to 

1 

0.10 

2.00 

2,000 

40,000 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  nitrogen  content  (pounds)  of  all 
marsh  soils  is  very  high  compared  with  upland  soils.  Peats 
are  exceptionally  rich  in  nitrogen  because  they  are  composed 
almost  entirely  of  organic  matter. 

Peat  soils,  as  a rule,  are  very  low  in  the  mineral  elements, 
potassium  and  phosphorus.  Mucks  are  better  supplied  with 
these  two  elements,  though  the  potassium  content  is  low  in 
comparison  with  upland  clay  or  silt  loam. 

The  lt marsh-border’ f soils  are  well  supplied  with  both  potas- 
sium and  phosphorus  as  well  as  with  nitrogen,  and  therefore 
have  high  cropping  possibilities. 

Potassium  a Common  Factor  Limiting  Crop  Yields.  Since 
peats  and  mucks  are  low  in  the  element  potassium,  crops 
growing  on  those  soils  are  limited  in  yield  or  fail  entirely  un- 
less this  element  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  potash  fertilizers 
and  manure.  It  is  a striking  fact  that  the  lighter  peaty  soils 
contain,  on  an  average,  only  about  1/28  of  the  amount  of  po- 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


tassium  contained  in  a clay  or  silt  loam.  Mucky  soils,  having 
more  earthy  matter,  have  1/12  to  1/6  as  much.  Some  light 
peats,  analyzing  as  low  as  0.08  per  cent  potassium,  contain  only 
about  1/150  as  much  of  this  plant-food  element  as  is  contained 
in  a good  silt  loam. 

It  is  true,  of  course,  that  the  large  amount  of  potassium  in 
the  clay  or  earthy  portion  of  the  soil  becomes  available  to  plants 
only  through  a slow  process  of  chemical  decomposition.  Never- 
theless, when  there  is  a good  supply  of  organic  matter  in  a 
clay  loam  soil,  it  does  not  ordinarily  lack  enough  potassium  to 
permit  the  growth  of  crops.  The  exceptions  are  heavy  crops 
of  those  plants  which  take  unusually  large  amounts  of  the  ele- 
ment, crops  such  as  cabbage,  sugar  beets,  tobacco,  or  potatoes. 
In  the  case  of  peat  soils  the  total  amount  of  potassium  actually 
present  would  often  suffice  for  only  a few  crops,  even  if  every 
particle  of  it  were  available,  which  is  never  the  case,  of  course. 

Potash  Fertilizers.  There  are  several  kinds  of  potash  fer- 
tilizers. Some  of  these  are  valuable  for  their  potash  only,  while 
others  also  contain  phosphorus  and,  often,  nitrogen.  Fertil- 
izers containing  two  or  all  three  of  the  elements,  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, and  potassium,  are  called  mixed  or  commercial  fertil- 
izers. Those  containing  potash  only,  such  as  the  muriate  and 
sulphate  of  potash  and  kainite,  have  been  almost  entirely  im- 
ported from  Germany  and  the  supply  has  been  cut  off  by  the 
war.  On  marsh  soils  needing  only  potash  they  are,  of  course, 
the  cheapest  and  best  fertilizers  to  use  when  they  can  be  had. 
High  grade  muriate  and  sulphate  of  potash  contain  nearly  41 
per  cent  of  potassium  and  kainite  contains  from  10  to  12  per 
cent. 

Mixed  or  commercial  fertilizers  ordinarily  contain  very 
small  amounts  of  potassium,  if  any,  but  the  fertilizer  companies 
are  beginning  to  manufacture  mixed  fertilizers  which  are  espe- 
cially adapted  for  marsh  soils  and  contain  from  8 to  10  per  cent 
of  potash,  together  with  phosphorus  and  small  amounts  of 
nitrogen.  On  marsh  soils  needing  both  phosphorus  and  potas- 
sium such  fertilizers  are  very  satisfactory,  though  more  ex- 
pensive than  an  equivalent  mixture  of  a high-grade  potash 
fertilizer  and  acid  phosphate.  The  percentage  of  potassium  in 
the  fertilizer  must  be  considered  in  determining  the  amount  to 
apply.  There  is  as  much  potassium  in  100  pounds  of  high- 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


11 


grade  muriate  of  potash  as  in  1000  pounds  of  a mixed  fertilizer 
containing  but  5 per  cent  of  potash. 

Wood  Ashes  for  Marsh  Soils.  Dry,  unleached  hardwood 
ashes  ordinarily  contain  from  2 to  4 per  cent  of  potassium.  As 
the  potash  in  wood  ashes  is  very  soluble  it  is  important  that 
they  be  protected  from  leaching.  Ashes  are  sometimes  allowed 
to  accumulate  near  sawmills,  especially  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  state,  and  can  be  had  for  the  hauling.  The  effect  of 
ashes  on  some  of  the  marshes  fin  the  north  central  part  of  the 
state,  which  are  decidedly  acid,  has  been  so  beneficial  that  the 
results  obtained  could  not  be  duplicated  by  any  combination  of 
commercial  fertilizer.  The  alkalinity  of  these  ashes  evidently 
caused  the  peat  to  decay  more  rapidly,  thus  furnishing  avail- 
able nitrogen. 

How  Much  Potash  to  Apply.  The  amount  used  depends 
largely  upon  the  crops  to  be  grown.  Such  rank-growing  crops 
as  beets  and  cabbage  should  have  a heavier  application  than 
the  cereals  and^hay  grasses.  When  these  crops  are  grown  in 
rotation  it  may  be  unnecessary  to  use  the  potash  fertilizer  in 
seeding  down  with  a cereal,  following  a crop  on  which  a heavy 
application  was  used  the  previous  year. 

On  marshes  underlain  by  clay  and  where  the  overlying  peat 
or  muck  is  from  12  to  15  inches  in  depth,  it  frequently  happens 
that  there  is  a marked  need  of  potash  fertilizer  or  barnyard 
manure  for  a few  years  after  it  is  first  drained.  After  that 
time  this  need  partly,  or  entirely,  disappears.  This  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  fact  that  the  settling  of  the  peat  or  muck  in 
draining  and  working  permits  the  subsoil,  which  contains  much 
larger  quantities  of  potassium,  to  work  up  in  the  soil. 

A marked  illustration  of  this  fact  has  occurred  on  the  Experi- 
ment Station  farm  at  Madison,  where  about  26  years  ago  a 
tract  of  land,  then  distinctly  marsh,  was  tile-drained,  and  for 
the  first  few  years  showed  a very  great  deficiency  of  available 
potassium.  Fertilizers  containing  this  element  would  increase 
the  yield  three-  and  sometimes  four-fold.  During  the  last  few 
years,  however,  this  marked  need  of  potash  fertilizers  has 
largely  disappeared.  A part  of  the  necessary  potassium  has 
become  available  from  the  subsoil  while  a need  of  phosphorus 
and  nitrogen  has  gradually  developed,  so  that  a complete  fer- 
tilizer, such  as  barnyard  manure,  is  now  the  most  helpful.  It 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


should  be  understood,  however,  that  this  condition  can  only  de- 
velop on  peat  and  muck  soils  that  are  comparatively  shallow 
and  underlain  with  clay. 

It  will  be  seen  from  Table  I that  the  percentage  of  phos- 
phorus in  marsh  soils  is  generally  high  compared  with  upland 
soils.  Analyses  of  these  soils,  as  far  as  made  in  this  state,  show 
a variation  of  from  0.053  to  0.26  per  cent.  When  the  extreme 
lightness  of  peat  soils  is  considered,  however,  it  is  seen  that 
the  total  amount  of  phosphorus  occurring  in  them  may  be  ex- 


FIG.  2.— POTASH  IS  ALL  THAT  SOME  MARSH  SOILS  NEED 


Nine-foot  corn  was  produced  on  this  Waukesha  county  field  after  150  pounds  of 
muriate  of  potash  had  been  applied  to  the  acre.  The  untreated  crop  was  too  poor  to 
harvest. 

tremely  small,  in  some  cases  not  exceeding  185  pounds  in  the 
surface  8 inches  of  an  acre  of  soil.  Since  good  crops  of  grain 
or  corn  will  remove  annually  from  8 to  12  pounds  of  phos- 
phorus, it  will  be  seen  that  the  total  amount  at  present  may  not 
be  sufficient  for  more  than  20  to  25  good  crops.  Moreover,  a 
considerable  part  of  the  phosphorus  present  in  the  soil  may  not 
be  available. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  marsh  lands  contain  very  much 
larger  quantities  of  this  element  and  in  this  respect  compare 
favorably  with  upland  soils.  It  is  highly  desirable,  therefore, 
that  before  expensive  reclamation  is  undertaken  a chemical 
analysis  be  made  of  each  area. 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


13 

Phosphorus  in  Many  Marshes  Not  Available.  Experiments 
made  on  several  different  marshes  in  this  state  indicate  that 
not  only  is  there  a great  variation  in  the  total  amount  of  phos- 
phorus present  in  marsh  soils,  but  there  is  even  greater  differ- 
ence in  the  readiness  with  which  plants  can  extract  that  which 
is  in  the  soil.  Experiments  made  at  Marinette  with  phosphate 
fertilizers  on  peaty  marsh  soils,  underlain  by  sand,  showed 
that  phosphate,  as  well  as  potash  fertilizers  or  manure,  must  be 
used  before  maximum  crops  can  be  grown  on  that  marsh. 


FIG.  3 —OTHER  MARSH  SOILS  REQUIRE  PHOSPHATES  AS  WELL  AS  POTASH 
Muriate  of  potash  costing  about  $4.50,  used  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  to  the  acre 
produced  6.2  tons  of  green  corn.  A mixture  of  200  pounds  of  potash  and  400  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  costing  $7.75  produced  14.5  tons  to  the  acre.  When  no  fertilizers 
were  applied  the  yield  of  green  corn  was  2 tons  to  the  acre. 

On  this  peat  soil  without  fertilizer  practically  no  crop  could 
be  grown.  With  the  use  of  one  ton  of  wood  ashes  to  furnish 
potash,  a yield  of  26  bushels  of  barley  an  acre  was  grown,  and 
when  300  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  in  addition  to  a ton  of 
ashes  were  used  to  the  acre,  the  yield  of  barley  was  36  bushels 
an  acre.  When  300  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  were  used  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ashes  a yield  of  196  bushels  of  potatoes  was  obtained. 
With  only  the  ashes  the  yield  was  142  bushels  and  with  no  fer- 
tilizers the  yield  was  66  bushels  an  acre. 

Acidity  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  influencing  the 
availability  of  phosphorus  in  marsh,  as  well  as  other,  soils. 
As  a general  rule,  it  is  found  that  acid  soils  are  low  in  avail- 
able phosphorus.  The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  those 
cases  where  the  soil  is  naturally  acid  but  where  the  supply  of 
available  phosphorus  is  kept  up  by  heavy  applications  of  man- 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


ure  or  other  fertilizers.  Since  the  marshes  of  the  eastern  and 
southern  parts  of  the  state  are,  for  the  most  part,  neutral  or 
very  slightly  acid,  the  phosphorus  in  them  is  usually  more 
available,  while  the  very  acid  marshes  of  the  central  and 
northern  parts,  occurring  in  sandstone  and  granite  regions, 
very  commonly  show  marked  deficiency  in  available  phos- 
phorus. 

Some  Marshes,  Not  Acid,  Show  Phosphorus  Deficiency. 

Some  marsh  soils  of  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  state, 
even  though  not  acid,  have  shown  a marked  deficiency  in  the 
availability  of  their  phosphorus  content. 

It  is  true,  of  course,  that  where  the  total  phosphorus  is  low, 
no  matter  if  the  present  supply  is  readily  available,  it  will  be 
exhausted  in  time  and  a deficiency  will  become  apparent. 

Phosphate  Fertilizers.  The  best  way  to  meet  the  deficiency 
of  phosphorus  in  any  soil  is  by  applying  phosphate  fertilizers, 
of  which  there  are  four  principal  kinds,  acid  phosphate,  ground 
steamed  bonemeal,  raw  rock  phosphate,  and  mixed  fertilizers. 
Acid  phosphate  contains  phosphorus  in  a soluble  and  available 
form,  so  that  a smaller  amount  of  it  will  give  better  results 
than  in  the  other  cases.  It  is  the  form  which  it  is  safest  to 
use  until  a farmer  knows  definitely  that  his  land  requires  a 
phosphorus  fertilizer.  It  is  probable,  especially  on  marsh  lands, 
that  raw  rock  phosphate  may  prove  cheaper  in  the  long  run, 
but  it  does  not  give  such  marked  results  the  first  year  or  two. 

Use  Both  Potash  and  Phosphate  Fertilizers.  In  many  cases 
the  use  of  just  one  kind  of  fertilizer  does  not  give  the  best  re- 
sults on  marsh  soils.  On  many  peats  and  mucks,  particularly 
those  of  southern  and  southeastern  Wisconsin,  potash  fertil- 
izers alone  give  excellent  results,  especially  during  the  first 
few  years  of  cropping.  But  in  many  cases  the  addition  of 
phosphates  in  greater  or  less  amounts,  depending  on  condi- 
tions, is  necessary  for  the  most  profitable  yields.  On  all 
acid  marshes  both  kinds  of  fertilizers  must  be  used.  To 
facilitate  application  they  should  be  mixed  just  before  ap- 
plying. Or  mixed  commercial  fertilizers  containing  both 
potash  and  phosphorus  may  be  used.  These  have  some 
advantages  over  a homemade  mixture  of  muriate  of  potash  and 
acid  phosphate  in  that  a filler  or  drier  is  used  which  keeps  the 
mixture  in  better  mechanical  condition  for  spreading.  This 
makes  the  cost  somewhat  higher,  of  course. 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


15 


How  to  Apply  Fertilizers 

Two  methods  of  applying  fertilizers  are  in  use.  They  may 
be  spread  broadcast  on  the  plowed  ground  and  disked  in  be- 
fore planting  or  seeding,  or  in  the  case  of  crops  planted  in  drills 
or  hills,  they  may  be  applied  near  the  drill  or  hill  by  the  use 
of  planters  carrying  fertilizer  attachments.  When  applied 
broadcast  from  300  to  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  150 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  are  the  quantities  best  to  use  for 
all  staple  crops,  such  as  hay,  grain,  or  corn.  For  truck  crops 
such  as  cabbage,  sugar  beets  and  onions,  which  make  much 
heavier  growth,  these  amounts  should  be  increased  from  50  to 
100  per  cent.  When  applied  in  the  hill  or  drill  the  amount 
to  the  acre  must  be  much  less  or  there  is  danger  of  injury  to 
the  young  seedlings.  The  use  of  100  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
and  50  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  in  this  manner  will  often 
give  nearly  as  much  increase  in  yield  during  the  first  year  as 
the  larger  application  made  broadcast,  but  yields  on  the  land 
to  which”  the  larger  application  is  made  broadcast  will  be 
greater  in  succeeding  years.  When  applying  fertilizer 
in  the  hill  or  drill  the  planter  used  should  be  one  which 
carries  the  fertilizer  in  a separate  box  from  which  a separate 
tube  runs  to  the  soil.  In  this  way  some  soil  is  allowed  to  fall 
between  the  seed  and  fertilizer. 

When  Potash  Fertilizers  Are  Not  Available.  When  potash 
fertilizers,  manure,  and  wood  ashes  are  not  available,  very  good 
results  can  be  obtained  by  using  a 0-10-10*  mixed  fertilizer 
applied  in  the  hill  or  drill  with  a fertilizer  attachment  at  the 
rate  of  from  150  pounds  (when  dropped  in  the  hill)  to  300 
pounds  (when  dropped  in  drills)  to  the  acre.  In  case  of  truck 
crops  300  to  400  pounds  an  acre  of  a mixed  fertilizer  are  often 
applied,  broadcast,  in  addition  to  100  to  200  pounds  applied  in 
the  drills. 

Commercial  Fertilizers  May  Be  More  Economical  Than 

Manure 

On  marsh  soils  where  there  is  a deficiency  of  only  phosphorus 
and  potash  and  almost  an  over-supply  of  nitrogen,  it  does  not 
seem  wise  to  use  manure,  which  contains  considerable  nitro- 


*A  0-10-10  mixed  fertilizer  means  a fertilizer  containing  no  nitrogen,  10 
per  cent  phosphoric  acid  (phosphorus)  and  10  per  cent  potash  (potassium). 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


gen  and  a much  smaller  amount  of  phosphorus  and  potassium. 
The  amount  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  in  10  tons  of  manure 
can  be  applied  in  the  form  of  acid  phosphate  or  bonemeal  and 
muriate  of  potash  (at  normal  prices)  at  a total  cost  of  $4.50 
to  $5.  The  manure  can  be  used  to  better  advantage  on  high 
land  which  needs  all  the  elements  manure  contains,  particularly 
nitrogen.  Nevertheless,  it  is  often  best  to  use  fertilizers  con- 
taining 1 or  2 per  cent  of  nitrogen  for  crops  planted  early 
which  must  make  a quick  start  to  be  successful. 


FIG.  4.— HOW  MANURE  AND  MINERAL  FERTILIZERS  COMPARE  ON  MARSH 

SOILS 

It  is  more  profitable  to  apply  manure  to  upland  and  buy  mineral  fertilizer  to  marsh 
soils.  Manure  worth  $37.50  produced  only  3.5  tons  more  silage  to  the  acre  than  $9 
worth  of  rock  phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash.  The  test  was  made  in  Rock  county. 

Manure  Adds  Helpful  Soil  Organisms.  While  it  may  not  be 
profitable  to  apply  manure  for  the  purpose  of  adding  plant 
food,  it  seems  advisable  to  use  it  on  marsh  soil  occasionally  for 
the  purpose  of  adding  the  bacteria  that  hasten  the  decay 
of  raw  peat.  The  use  of  manure,  particularly  horse  manure, 
has  given  an  increase  of  crops  that  could  not  be  explained  by 
the  addition  of  the  small  amount  of  plant  food.  It  is  probable 
that  this  was  due  to  the  work  of  bacteria  that  were  added  with 
the  manure.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  apply  manure  (espe- 
cially horse  manure)  to  marsh  soils,  but  the  application  should 
be  light,  and  should  be  put  on  with  the  idea  of  seeding  as  much 
of  the  soil  with  bacteria  as  possible.  Five  to  six  tons  to  the 
acre  will  be  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  To  secure  the  best  crops 
the  usual  application  of  commercial  fertilizer  should  be  used 
with  this  manurial  treatment.  In  many  of  the  tests  made  on 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


17 


marsh  soils  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  phosphorus 
and  potash  fertilizers  produce  the  best  crops  on  soils  which  have 
been  manured  one,  two,  or  three  years  previous  to  the  time  of 
making  the  application. 

Mineral  Fertilizers  More  Profitable.  On  a marsh  at  Palmyra 
(1913)  an  application  of  15  tons  of  manure  to  the  acre  pro- 
duced 10.5  tons  of  silage  corn,  and  a heavy  application  of  400 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  applied  broadcast  produced  13.9 
tons.  The  15  tons  of  manure  was  valued  at  not  less  than  $22.50 
and  the  potash  at  $9.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  $9  worth  of 
potash  fertilizer  produced  3.4  tons  more  to  the  acre  than  $22.50 
worth  of  manure.  The  manure  in  this  case  affected  succeeding 
crops  less  than  the  potash,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  exhaustion  of 
the  potassium. 

On  another  marsh  at  Evansville  (1913)  an  application  of  25 
tons  of  manure  to  the  acre  produced  15.8  tons  of  silage  corn, 
and  a mixture  of  800  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  and  200  pounds 
of  muriate  of  potash  produced  12.3  tons.  Here  $37.50  worth 
of  manure  produced  only  3.5  tons  more  corn  than  about  $9 
.worth  of  mineral  fertilizers.  In  other  words,  it  took  $28.50 
worth  more  fertilizer  in  the  form  of  manure  to  produce  3.5 
tons  more  corn  than  was  produced  by  $9  worth  of  phosphate 
and  potash  fertilizers.  The  results  of  this  test,  shown  in  fig- 
ure 5,  are  sufficient  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  manure 
may  be  used  to  better  advantage  when  applied  to  upland  soils. 

Lime  on  Marsh  Soils 

Whether  lime  should  be  used  generally  on  acid  marsh  soils 
in  Wisconsin  is  a question  which  has  not  yet  been  fully  an- 
swered. The  acidity  of  marsh  soils  is  largely  due  to  soluble 
acids  which  are,  to  a considerable  extent,  washed  out  after  the 
land  has  been  thoroughly  drained.  In  this  respect  the  acidity 
of  marsh  soils  differs  from  the  acidity  of  upland  soils,  which 
is  not  removed  but  rather  increased  by  water  soaking  down 
through  the  soil.  It  is  necessary  to  neutralize  partly  the  acid- 
ity of  soils  to  make  them  better  fitted  for  the  legumes,  such  as 
clovers  and  soybeans,  which  need  more  lime  than  most  other 
plants.  If  these  crops  are  grown  on  acid  marsh  lands  it  wilJ 
doubtless  be  desirable  to  use  lime. 


IB 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


Another  benefit  due  to  liming  is  the  furthering  of  the  chem- 
ical reactions  in  the  soil  by  which  the  nitrogen  becomes  soluble 
and  available  to  crops.  In  the  case  of  cold  raw  marshes  and 
especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  lime  will  undoubt- 
edly hasten  the  growth  of  crops  early  in  the  season.  In  some 
cases  liming  has  been  found  beneficial,  while  in  others  it  has 
not  proved  profitable.  Further  experiments  and  studies  are 
necessary. 

When  lime  is  used  on  marsh  soils  it  should  be  worked  in  to  a 
depth  of  several  inches.  Spreading  any  form  of  lime  on  the 
surface  and  then  disking  it  in  thoroughly  while  getting  the 
land  ready  for  planting  is  the  best  method  of  applying  it.  Two 
tons  of  ground  limestone  or  air-slaked  lime  to  an  acre  is  a fair 
application. 

Soils  may  be  tested  for  acidity  by  using  blue  litmus  paper. 
Get  5 cents  worth  of  blue  litmus  paper  from  the  local  druggist 
and  go  into  the  field  soon  after  a rain,  while  the  surface  soil, 
is  still  quite  moist.  With  a clean  jack  knife  cut  a slit  into 
the  soil  and  in  this  slit  insert  a sheet  of  the  blue  litmus  paper, 
pressing  the  soil  firmly  around  it.  After  five  minutes  examine 
the  paper  carefully,  and  if  any  red  spots  appear  on  the  blue 
surface  it  can  safely  be  said  that  the  soil  is  acid.  Care  should 
be  taken  in  handling  the  litmus  paper  that  the  portion  used  for 
the  test  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  perspiring  hand,  for 
perspiration  has  the  same  effect  on  the  color  of  the  paper  that 
an  acid  soil  has. 


Crops  on  Marsh  Soils 

Well-drained  marsh-border  soils,  mucks,  and  well-drained 
and  fairly  well-decomposed  peats  are  adapted  to  a large  variety 
of  crops.  When  crops  are  selected  for  any  particular  marsh 
area,  however,  consideration  should  be  given  the  danger  of  in- 
jury from  frosts. 

Frost  Often  Injures  Crops  on  Marshes.  Crops  on  marshes 
are  more  subject  to  injury  from  frost  than  those  on  upland 
soils.  Frosts  often  occur  on  marshes  when  they  do  not  occur 
on  surrounding  higher  land.  The  cold  air  settles  to  the  ground 
on  higher  land  and  flows  down  to  the  lower  land  so  that  frost 
occurs  there  even  though  it  does  not  occur  on  the  high  land. 
Marsh  soils,  on  account  of  their  loose  character  and  large  amount 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


19 


of  vegetable  matter,  do  not  permit  the  heat  from  the  sun’s  rays 
to  penetrate  the  soil  as  it  does  on  sandy  or  more  earthy  soils. 
The  heat  is  caught  at  the  very  surface  of  the  soil  and  is  radi- 
ated back  into  the  air,  so  that  when  night  comes  on  and  the  soil 
continues  to  lose  heat  by  radiation,  lower  temperature  is  reached 
than  in  the  case  of  the  more  earthy  soils.  Heavy  rolling,  which 
compacts  the  soil,  makes  easier  the  entrance  of  heat  and  lessens 
the  danger  from  frost. 

Frost  is  as  likely  to  occur  on  marsh  land  at  any  given  point 
as  it  is  on  upland  earthy  soils  150  miles  farther  north.  As  a 
result,  corn  is  not  a sure  crop  on  marshes  in  the  central  part 
of  the  state,  though  it  can  usually  be  grown  to  a silage  stage. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  state  no  effort  should  be  made  to 
grow  corn  on  marsh  land.  Crops  such  as  buckwheat  and  po- 
tatoes cannot  be  considered  safe  on  marsh  land  in  the  central 
and  northern  parts  of  the  state. 

Crops  Best  to  Grow  on  New  Marsh  Land.  When  marsh  land 
is  first  placed  under  cultivation  the  number  of  crops  that  can 
be  grown  successfully  is  limited,  especially  if  the  soil  is  tough 
peat.  Soybeans,  buckwheat,  flax,  timothy  and  alsike  clover  are, 
commonly,  the  best  first  crops.  On  mucks  and  well-decomposed 
peats  of  southern  Wisconsin  corn  is  very  frequently  planted  as 
the  first  crop.  Rye  will  -also  do  well  and  is  frequently  used  as 
a nurse  crop  for  grass  and  clover  seeding. 

Buckwheat.  Buckwheat  is  usually  grown  because  it  has  a 
shallow  root  system  and  makes  fair  growth  with  shallow  drain- 
age. It  requires  only  a short  growing  season.  Buckwheat 
does  not  lodge  so  readily  as  do  grain  crops.  The  principal  ob- 
jection to  growing  buckwheat  is  that  when  seeded  too  early 
the  flowers  are  likely  to  blight,  and  when  seeded  too  late  the 
plant  is  subject  to  frost.  The  usual  planting  time  is  in  June, 
preferably  the  middle  of  June,  and  the  seeding  at  the  rate  of 
one-half  bushel  of  Silver  Hull  or  three  pecks  of  Japanese  buck- 
wheat seed  to  the  acre. 

Soybeans.  Soybeans  are  usually  grown  on  light  soils,  but 
recent  tests  indicate  that  they  grow  successfully  on  well- 
drained,  raw,  peat  marshes,  producing  a large  yield.  They 
should  be  grown  principally  to  furnish  a feed  higher  in  protein 
than  the  average  hay  crop  produced  on  marsh  land,  and  should 
be  used  also  in  combination  with  corn  for  silage  purposes. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


Early  varieties  of  soybeans,  such  as  the  Wisconsin  Black  and 
Medium  Early  Green,  can  be  grown  for  seed  purposes  and  sold 
as  a cash  crop.  Ito  San  or  Black  Eyebrow  soybeans  or  any 
of  the  early  varieties  may  also  be  used  for  hay.  To  grow  them 
successfully  the  field  should  be  prepared  the  same  as  for  grow- 
ing corn.  Thorough  inoculation  is  just  as  necessary  on  marsh 
as  on  sandy  soils.  They  should  be  planted  in  rows  two  to  three 
feet  apart,  and  cultivated.  The  rate  of  seeding  should  be  about 
25  to  30  pounds  to  the  acre. 


FIG.  5 —soybeans  adapted  to  peat  marsh  lands 

The  soybean  is  one  of  the  best  high-protein  crops  for  the  marsh  farmer. 


Flax.  Flax  has  been  grown  quite  successfully  on  marshes  in 
central  Wisconsin.  Although  it  is  recommended  as  a good  first 
crop  on  tough  peat,  yet  it  cannot  be  strongly  recommended  as  a 
permanent  crop  for  marsh  soils  because  of  its  small  root 
system  and  its  inability  to  secure  sufficient  plant-food  elements. 
Flax  grows  best  on  land  well  supplied  with  humus  and  avail- 
able nitrogen. 

Flax  should  be  planted  sometime  during  the  latter  part  of 
May  or,  preferably,  in  June.  Fall-plowed  land  is  better  than 
spring-plowed.  A good  seed  bed  is  desirable.  When  the  crop 
is  grown  for  seed  3 or  4 pecks  of  seed  should  be  planted  to  the 
acre ; when  grown  for  fiber,  2 to  2 y2  bushels  to  the  acre.  Thick 
seeding  will  prevent  branching  of  the  plant,  thus  producing  a 
long  straight  straw.  When  planted  with  a seeder  the  grain 
should  be  covered  with  a light  harrow  and  then  rolled  thor- 
oughly. 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


21 


Timothy  and  Alsike  Clover.  Timothy  and  alsike  clover  are 
grown  extensively  on  marsh  soils  in  central  and  northern  Wis- 
consin, usually  being  one  of  the  first  crops  planted.  Excellent 
yields  of  hay  have  been  obtained  on  well-drained  marshes. 
Proper  fertilization  increases  the  yield.  On  peat  soil  near  Ban- 
croft the  yield  of  hay  in  1917  was  increased  from  1%  tons  to  3 
tons  an  acre  by  the  use  of  phosphate  and  potash  fertilizers  ap- 
plied in  1916. 

Timothy  and  alsike  clover  grow  best  when  seeded  early  in 
spring,  although  timothy  alone  will  grow  best  when  seeded  in 
September  or  early  fall.  The  land  should  be  prepared  in  the 
same  way  as  for  other  crops.  A nurse  crop  of  oats  or  fall-sown 
rye  can  be  used  if  it  is  not  sown  too  thickly.  Timothy  is  often 
seeded  in  the  fall  with  rye,  and  alsike  clover  is  seeded  the  follow- 
ing spring.  Thorough  compacting  of  peat  soils  is  essential  in 
growing  successful  crops  of  timothy  and  alsike.  On  some  peat 
soils,  where  the  surface  has  been  burned  over,  timothy  and  alsike 
clover  have  been  seeded  in  the  ashes  and  dragged  in.  Although 
some  good  crops  have  been  secured  in  this  way,  the  practice  can- 
not be  generally  recommended. 

Timothy  and  alsike  clover  are  shallow-rooted  crops  and  are 
grown  frequently  on  poorly  drained  marshes.  The  quality  of 
hay  secured  where  poor  drainage  exists  is  not  good,  being  quite 
low  in  feeding  value.  Timothy  when  grown  alone  is  frequently 
cut  when  too  mature,  which  results  in  poor  hay.  These  two 
factors  combined  with  the  lack  of  available  nitrogen  in  raw  peat 
soils  and  the  consequent  low  protein  content  of  the  hay,  have 
given  tame  hay  grown  on  marshes  a poor  reputation  on  some 
markets  in  central  Wisconsin.  When  properly  grown  and 
handled,  timothy  and  alsike  clover  hay,  grown  on  well-drained 
peat,  is  of  as  good  quality  as  that  grown  on  upland’. 

Other  Grasses.  Bluegrass,  redtop,  meadow  fescue,  and  or- 
chard grass  are  often  recommended  and  grown  successfully  on 
peat  soils.  They  may  be  used  on  poorly  drained  marshes,  but 
on  the  better  drained  areas  clover  and  alfalfa  are  superior  in 
both  yield  and  feeding  value. 

Corn.  New,  raw  peat  lands  are  not  adapted  to  corn  grow- 
ing, nor  can  the  later  varieties  be  grown  on  well-decomposed  peat 
or  muck  soils  without  more  or  less  injury  by  frosts  in  the  early 
fall.  Wisconsin. No.  8 and  Wisconsin  No.  25  are  varieties  of 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


purebred  corn  which  have  matured^during  some  seasons  on  cen- 
tral and  northern  Wisconsin  marshes.  Wisconsin  No.  12,  a pure- 
bred yellow  dent  variety,  is  best  adapted  for  silage  purposes,  as 
it  has  a fair-sized  stalk  and  a medium  to  large  ear,  and  matures 
fairly  well  during  the  average  growing  season.  It  makes  better 
silage  than  some  of  the  later  varieties  which  produce  a large  stalk 
and  comparatively  small  ears  during  the  short  growing  season. 
Corn  and  soybeans  can  be  grown  together  for  silage  purposes, 
thus  increasing  the  value  of  the  feed.  A light  application  of 
manure  combined  with  a liberal  dressing  of  phosphorus  and 
potash  fertilizers  should  be  used  to  grow  the  best  possible  crop 
of  com  on  peat  soils. 

Red  Clover.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  neither  medium 
nor  mammoth  clover  will  grow  on  peat  soils.  While  they  are 
not  so  hardy  as  alsike  clover,  yet  they  will  grow  on  drained  peat 
lands.  Mammoth  clover  appears  to  be  more  hardy  than  medium 
red  clover.  To  grow  these  clovers  successfully  the  field  should 
be  limed  if  acid,  fertilized,  inoculated,  thoroughly  cultivated, 
compacted,  and  seeded  with  a light  nurse  crop. 

The  advantage  of  growing  red  clover  rather  than  alsike  and 
timothy  is  in  its  superiority  as  a feed  for  dairy  cows  and  the 
fact  that  it  adds  more  available  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  Some  truck 
farmers  on  muck  soils  in  southern  Wisconsin  grow  medium  red 
clover  once  every  four  or  five  years,  primarily  for  a green  manur- 
ing crop  to  furnish  readily  available  nitrogen  and  humus  for 
such  crops  as  onions  or  sugar  beets. 

Potatoes.  Potatoes  have  been  grown  successfully  on  marshes 
in  central  Wisconsin  where  the  drainage  is  good  and  where  the 
field  has  been  cropped  two  or  three  years.  New  peat  land  does 
not  grow  a large  crop  of  potatoes.  Wet  lands  produce  soggy 
potatoes  not  valued  for  cooking.  The  soil  should'  be  prepared 
well  and  fertilized  for  growing  potatoes.  An  application  of  200 
pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  and  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate, 
has  produced  good  results.  From  500  to  1000  pounds  an  acre 
of  a 0-10-10  fertilizer  would  also  increase  yields  of  potatoes. 

Due  to  early  autumn  frosts  late  varieties  of  potatoes  have  not 
yielded  so  well  as  the  early  varieties.  The  Triumph  and  Early 
Ohio  are  better  than  the  Early  Rose,  while  of  the  late  varieties 
the  Rural  New  Yorker  is  better  adapted  than  the  Green  Moun- 
tain. To  avoid  the  early  fall  frosts  all  potatoes  should  be  planted 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


23 


as  soon  as  seasonal  conditions  will  permit.  Too  early  planting, 
however,  where  the  soil  is  cold  and  wet,  will  cause  rotting  of 
the  seed  tubers  and  a poor  stand.  The  yield  of.  potatoes  on  the 
average  marsh  in  central  Wisconsin  varies  from  75  to  150  bushels 
an  acre. 

Truck  Crops.  Cabbage,  sugar  beets,  onions,  and  celery  are 
grown  successfully  on  thoroughly  drained  mucks  and  on  well- 


FIG.  6.— MARSH  SOILS  GROW  TRUCK  CROPS 


Unusually  heavy  crops  of  cabbage  have  been  grown  on  marsh  land  in  Dane  county. 

drained  and  well-decomposed  peats  of  southeastern  Wisconsin. 
Since  the  soils  in  this  section  are  usually  well  supplied  with 
lime,  success  with  truck  crops  may  be  largely  httributed  to 
this  fact. 

Alfalfa  on  Marsh  Soils.  Because  of  their  lack  of  drainage, 
marsh  soils  are  generally  not  well  adapted  to  alfalfa.  In  the 
eastern  and  southeastern  sections  of  the  state  where  the  marsh 
tracts  are,  as  a rule,  parts  of  upland  farms,  the  alfalfa  should  be 
raised  on  the  upland  and  the  marshes  should  be  used  for  raising 
crops  other  than  legumes. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


In  other  sections  where  marshes  cover  large  areas  and  farms 
consist  entirely  of  this  class  of  soils  farmers  may  still  desire  to 
raise  some  alfalfa.  Experiments  on  this  class  of  soil  tend  to 
indicate  that  alfalfa  can  be  grown  on  well-drained  marshes  where 
the  free  water  in  the  soil  never  gets  higher  than  two  feet  from 
the  surface.  If  for  any  reason  the  water  does  rise  to  the  sur- 
face or  cover  it  at  any  time  of  the  year  alfalfa  should  never  be 
attempted. 

To  insure  best  results  under  favorable  drainage  conditions  fall 
plowing  and  thorough  cultivation  are  necessary.  The  alfalfa 
should  be  planted  on  a field  which  has  been  cultivated  and  kept 
free  from  weeds  during  the  previous  season.  During  the  early 
spring  months,  or  as  early  as  possible,  and  at  intervals  of  two 
weeks,  the  field  should  be  harrowed  to  kill  weeds  and  make  plant- 
food  materials  available.  Before  the  seeding,  75  pounds  of 
muriate  of  potash  and  300  pounds  of  steamed  bonemeal  to  the 
acre  should  be  applied  to  furnish  available  mineral  elements — 
potassium  and  phosphorus — and  some  nitrogen.  On  acid  marsh 
soils  lime  in  some  form  is  also  necessary. 

Inoculation,  too,  should  not  be  forgotten.  This  may  be  done 
in  either  of  two  ways:  soil  obtained  from  a field  where  alfalfa 
has  been  grown  successfully  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  about 
a wagon  box  full  for  three  or  four  acres;  or  artificial  alfalfa 
cultures  may  be  used.  Inoculation  may  seem  unnecessary,  yet 
it  should  be  done  to  introduce  into  the  soil  the  proper  organisms 
for  the  production  of  nodules  on  the  roots  of  the  alfalfa.  Alfalfa 
should  be  planted  during  the  month  of  May  or  the  first  part  of 
June,  the  exact  time  of  planting  depending  on  the  local  weather 
conditions;  that  is,  when  sufficient  moisture  is  present  in  the 
surface  soil  to  germinate  the  seed  readily. 

The  experimental  work  done  up  to  the  present  time  indicates 
that  Grimm  alfalfa  is  more  hardy  and'  will  not  winterkill  so 
easily  as  the  common  alfalfa  and  should  be  used  on  marsh  soils. 
Grimm  alfalfa  also  grows  more  rapidly  after  each  cutting  on 
these  soils. 

Hemp.  Hemp  is  grown  somewhat  extensively  and  with  good 
success  on  the  silt  loam  soils  of  eastern  and  southeastern  Wis- 
consin. At  present  only  a small  percentage  is  grown  in  marsh 
soils.  Experimental  work  indicates  that  where  phosphate  and 
potash  fertilizers  are  used  good  yields  of  hemp  can  be  grown  on 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


25 


the  marsh  soils  of  central  Wisconsin,  but  the  quality  of  the  fiber 
is  not  so  good  as  that  produced’  on  high  land.  The  plant  needs 
a large  amount  of  available  nitrogen  as  well  as  other  mineral 
elements  to  make  a quick  rank  growth. 

In  order  to  grow  hemp  special  knowledge  as  to  methods  of 
growing  and  handling  the  crop  and  special  machinery  are  neces- 
sary. From  400  to  500  acres  should  be  grown  in  a locality  to 
make  it  a profitable  venture.  The  best  methods  of  growing  and 
retting  hemp  must  also  be  carefully  studied.  The  fiber  from 
hemp  is  used  to  make  binder  twine,  ropes,  and  sacks.  Owing  to 
the  scarcity  of  raw  material,  hemp  fiber  has  been  high-priced  in 
recent  years,  and  the  growing  of  hemp  should  be  profitable  for 
those  who  are  willing  to  make  a special  effort  to  grow  the  crop. 

MARSHjES  OF  DIFFERENT  SECTIONS  AND  THEIR 
CROP  ADAPTATION 

Owing  to  great  differences  in  the  underlying  rocks  of  different 
parts  of  the  state  and  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  very  important 
differences  are  found  in  the  marsh  soils  of  different  sections  of 
the  state.  The  central  and  northern  marshes  are  generally 
highly  acid  and  require  both  phosphate  and  potash  fertilizers. 
The  eastern  and  southeastern  marshes  are  generally  not  acid, 
and  differ  from  each  other  in  their  fertilizer  requirements. 
Since  marsh  soils  as  a whole  are  likely  to  be  cold  and  affected  by 
local  frosts,  the  differences  in  climate  between  the  southern  and 
northern  parts  of  the  state  are  important  in  determining  the 
crops  which  can  be  grown.  It  is  desirable  to  consider  separately 
the  character  and  uses  of  marsh  lands  in  each  of  the  different 
sections  of  the  state. 

Marshes  of  Southeastern  Wisconsin 

Eastern  and  southeastern  Wisconsin,  bounded  on  the  north- 
west by  a nearly  straight  line  from  Green  Bay  to  Madison  and 
then  southwest  through  Monroe,  includes  an  area  the  underlying 
rocks  of  which  are  largely  limestone.  In  passing  over  the  larger 
part  of  that  region  during  the  glacial  period  the  ice  ground  up 
large  quantities  of  this  limestone  and  mixed  it  with  the  surface 
soil  in  such  a way  as  to  produce  a clay  subsoil  highly  charged 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


with  carbonate  of  lime.  The  marshes  and  shallow  lakes  left 
after  the  melting  of  the  glacial  ice  are  gradually  filling  up,  partly 
with  the  remains  of  vegetation  growing  on  them  and  partly  with 
sediment  washed  in  from  the  surrounding  higher  ground.  In 
this  way  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  dissolved  and  carried  into  the 
marsh  lands  by  the  surface  water  and  underground  seepage,  so 
as  to  largely  neutralize  the  natural  tendency  of  the  marsh  soils* 
to  become  acid.  As  a rule,  therefore,  the  marsh  soils  in  the 
southern  and  southeastern  parts  of  the  state  are  not  acid,  or  only 
slightly  acid. 

Quite  frequently  these  marshes,  when  planted  to  corn  or  other 
crops,  show  patches  of  from  a few  rods  to  several  acres  in  extent 
on  which  the  seed  germinates  well,  but  the  crop  turns  yellow  at 
an  early  stage  and  fails  to  develop.  It  frequently  happens  that 
com  will  grow  to  a height  of  only  one  or  two  feet  during  the 
whole  season  and  produce  no  grain  whatever.  Where  this  oc- 
curs it  is  due  either  to  the  lack  of  sufficient  drainage  or  to  the 
lack  of  a supply  of  available  potassium  or  of  potassium  and  phos- 
phorus. 

In  many  cases  experiments  made  during  the  last  10  years  on 
soils  of  different  characters  in  this  portion  of  the  state,  have 
shown  increases  in  yield  all  the  way  from  two  to  five  or  six  times, 
by  the  application  of  potash  fertilizers  only.  Where  manure  is 
available  a good  application  of  especially  strawy  horse  manure 
will  be  as  effective  as  the  potash  fertilizer.  Ordinarily  there  is 
a use  for  all  barnyard  manure  on  upland's,  and,  in  that  case,  it 
is  good  economy  to  use  only  the  necessary  element  on  the  marsh 
lands.  The  burning  over  of  the  surface  moss  or  peat  to  a shal- 
low depth  will,  of  course,  leave  in  the  ash  a supply  of  available 
potash  which  will  be  sufficient  for  crops  from  one  to  three  years. 
This  practice  is  not  detrimental  under  certain  conditions.  (Page 
5.) 

Best  Crops  for  Southeastern  Marshes.  On  account  of  the 
large  supply  of  nitrogen  in  these  soils  they  are  especially  well 
adapted  to  crops  which  produce  a rank  growth  and  require 
large  amounts  of  this  element,  such  as  corn,  cabbage,  beets,  and 
potatoes.  Of  course,  the  quality  of  potatoes  and  sugar  beets 
may  not  be  quite  so  good  as  if  grown  on  upland  soil.  Owing  to 
the  large  supplies  of  nitrogen,  small  grains  generally  do  not  do 
well,  though  during  comparatively  dry  seasons  heavy  yields  of 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


27 


grains  can  be  grown  if  a sufficient  supply  of  mineral  elements  is 
present.  Probably  the  best  use  of  these  lands  on  general  farms, 
and  dairy  farms  especially,  is  for  the  growing  of  hay  and  com. 
A mixture  of  timothy  and  alsike  clover  grows  extremely  well  and 
produces  hay  of  good  quality. 

Marsh  Soils  of  the  Sandy  Sections 

Large  areas  of  marsh  soil  having  sandy  subsoils  and  sur- 
rounded by  sandy  uplands  occur  in  the  central,  northeastern,  and 
northwestern  portions  of  the  state.  The  soil  of  these  marshes  is 
either  a light  muck  or  a distinct  peat.  They  are  always  acid 
because  there  is  practically  no  lime  in  the  subsoil  or  surrounding 
country  to  be  carried  into  the  marsh  by  water.  Such  soils  always 
require  fertilizers  containing  phosphorus  and  potash  unless  they 
have  been  recently  burned  over.  When  the  farm  contains  up- 
land soil  to  which  manure  can  be  applied  it  should  be  used  there 
and  commercial  fertilizers  containing  only  the  necessary  ele- 
ments should  be  purchased  for  the  marsh  land.  In  most  cases 
these  soils  will  probably  be  benefited  by  the  lime. 

Crops  Best  for  Marshes  in  Sandy  Sections.  In  considering 
crops  account  must  be  taken  of  the  liability  to  frost.  This 
makes  corn  and  potatoes  uncertain.  The  best  staple  crop  is 
hay,  chiefly  timothy  and  alsike  clover.  Hardy  special  crops 
can  also  be  grown  when  properly  managed.  Proper  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil,  especially  the  use  of  a heavy  roller,  and  drain- 
age must  not  be  overlooked. 

Marsh  Lands  of  Northern  Sections 

In  almost  all  of  the  central  portion  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
state  clay  soils  abound.  Scattered  over  this  entire  region  are 
marshes  of  various  sizes,  nearly  all  of  them  underlain  by  clay 
subsoil.  Very  little  has  been  done  in  their  development  as  yet, 
and  undoubtedly  much  is  still  to  be  learned  regarding  their 
possibilities  and  treatment.  Certain  differences,  however,  must 
be  recognized  between  these  marshes  and  those  of  the  other  areas. 
In  the  first  place,  these  marshes  are  frequently  of  comparatively 
small  size  and  surrounded'  by  higher  land  still  covered  with  a 
growth  of  native  trees  sufficient  to  greatly  retard  air  drainage. 
This,  together  with  the  clay  subsoil,  poor  water  drainage,  and 
their  northern  location,  makes  them  very  much  colder  and  more 
subject  to  summer  frosts  than  are  the  marshes  of  the  other  sec- 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


tions.  They  are  not  so  rapidly  drained  as  those  with  a sandy 
subsoil,  but  probably  have  more  silt  and  earthy  matter  in  them. 
The  underlying  rocks  of  this  region  are  largely  granites  and  other 
crystalline  rocks  not  containing  lime  carbonate,  and  the  marsh 
soils  are,  therefore,  extremely  acid.  On  account  of  their  coldness 
and  this  acidity,  even  the  large  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  vege- 
table matter  does  not,  at  least  in  some  cases,  nitrify  rapidly 
enough  to  supply  growing  crops. 

On  one  experiment  field  at  Phillips  the  use  of  hardwood'  ashes 
was  found  to  be  extremely  beneficial,  much  more  so  than  the  use 
of  corresponding  amounts  of  phosphate  and  potash  fertilizers. 
This,  together  with  the  fact  that  much  improvement  has  been 
made  by  the  use  of  lime  in  addition  to  phosphate  and  potash 
fertilizers,  indicates  that  their  coldness  and  sourness  is  such  as 
to  make  the  rate  of  nitrification  too  slow  for  good  crops.  Und'er 
similar  conditions  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  use  of  either  wat- 
er-slaked fresh  lime  or  ground  limestone  will  be  found  • very 
helpful.  The  use  of  barnyard  manure,  especially  strawy  horse 
manure,  is  also  very  helpful  in  increasing  the  nitrification  under 
such  conditions,  as  well  as  in  supplying  some  more  readily  avail- 
able nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  When  such  lands 
are  first  cleared,  a dressing  of  horse  manure  is  very  beneficial. 

Crops  for  Northern  Marshes.  On  account  of  the  coldness  of 
these  soils,  corn  and  potatoes  are  now  out  of  the  question.  Prob- 
ably the  best  use  that  can  be  made  of  them  is  for  the  growing  of 
hay,  for  which  a mixture  of  timothy  and  alsike  clover  is  perhaps 
preferred.  Since  these  marsh  lands,  where  they  can  be  readily 
drained,  are  more  easily  cleared  than  upland  soils,  their  use  for 
the  growing  of  hay  for  winter  feed  is  of  the  greatest  aid  in  the 
development  of  agriculture. 

Small  grains  can  be  grown  to  a limited  extent  on  such  soils 
where  proper  care  is  taken.  Cabbage,  rape,  and  turnips  also 
may  be  grown. 

Rotation  of  Crops  on  Marsh  Soil 

\ 

Benefits  of  Rotation.  Rotation  aids  greatly  in  avoiding 
diseases  and  insects  which  develop  in  soils  kept  continuously 
in  the  same  crop.  It  also  permits  the  addition  of  the  more  easily 
decomposed  organic  matter,  such  as  manure,  sod,  and  green 
crops.  Hence,  rotation  is  often  desirable  on  marsh  soils  to  in- 
crease productiveness. 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


29 


Clover  Benefits  Marsh  Soils.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  add 
organic  matter  to  peat  which  in  itself  is  practically  all  organic 
matter,  yet  it  is  recognized  as  a good  practice,  especially  when 
potatoes,  cabbage,  sugar  beets,  and’  onions  are  raised.  Using 
proper  fertilizers,  combined  with  a crop  rotation  containing 
clover,  or  clover  and  timothy,  is  safe  and  wise.  On  farms  con- 
sisting entirely  of  marsh  it  is  as  important  to  grow  alfalfa  and 
clover  as  it  is  on  upland  soils. 

With  the  placing  of  a legume  or  hay  crop  in  the  rotation 
some  small  grain  such  as  rye  or  oats  must  necessarily  be  grown, 
but  they  are  considered  less  desirable  crops  for  this  kind  of  soil 
because  of  the  tendency  to  lodge.  If  corn  or  some  other  cul- 
tivated crop  is  raised  the  first  three  years  and'  the  soil  is  treated 
with  the  proper  mineral  fertilizers  during  that  time  grain  may 
be  grown  very  successfully,  provided  less  seed  be  sown  than  on 
upland  soil.  If  the  grain  crop  is  too  rank  even  then  it  would  be 
well  to  cut  it  for  hay  in  order  to  save  the  seeding. 

Practical  Rotations.  If  a farmer  has  30  acres  of  peat  and 
desires  to  grow  cabbage  and  sugar  beets  as  cash  crops,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  divide  the  field  into  four  strips  and  crop  them  to 
sugar  beets,  cabbage,  grain,  and  hay,  respectively,  in  the  order 
named.  Thus,  a four-year  rotation  of  hay,  sugar  beets,  cabbage 
and  grain  would  be  practiced  on  each  strip.  On  a dairy  farm, 
two  or  three  corn  crops  may  be  grown  in  succession,  followed 
by  grain,  and  then  seeded  to  alsike  clover  and  timothy.  The  hay 
may  be  cut  the  first  year  and'  pastured  the  second.  The  rotation 
best  suited  to  any  peat  marsh  can  best  be  determined  by  the 
conditions  existing  on  that  particular  farm. 

Marsh  Soils  in  Relation  to  Types  of  Farming 

Marsh  Adapted  to  Three  Types  of  Farming.  Marsh  soils  are 
adaped  to  three  types  of  farming,  stock  raising  or  dairy  farm- 
ing, truck  farming,  or  a combination  of  the  two  in  which 
neither  type  predominates.  Grain  farming  cannot  as  yet  be 
recommended  on  marsh  soils.  In  many  localities  a one-crop 
system  is  being  followed  where  celery,  peppermint,  or  some 
other  crop  is  the  entire  source  of  income.  While  a rotation  of 
crops  is  not  absolutely  necessary  a change  of  crops  is  desirable 
to  aid  in  controlling  insect  pests  and  diseases.  Farmers  who 
specialize  in  a one-crop  system  do  not  pay  much  attention  to 
minor  crops  unless  the  principal  crop  is  threatened  by  disease. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


Grain  Failing  Not  Adapted  to  Marsh  Lands.  Grain  farm- 
ing, in  which  grains  are  sold  and  form  the  entire  source  of  in- 
come, cannot  be  recommended  on  either  peat  or  muck  soils  in 
Wisconsin.  The  unbalanced  condition  of  the  plant-food  ele- 
ments in  the  soil  makes  them  unadaptable  for  grains.  Marsh 
soils  are  high  in  nitrogen,  which  produces  a rank  growth  of  straw, 
but  they  do  not  contain  enough  potassium  to  stiffen  the  straw 
and  make  it  stand  up,  nor  enough  phosphorus  to  produce  grain 
and  fill  the  head  properly.  This  means  lodging,,  with  the  conse- 
quent poor  crop  and  chaffy  grain.  Grain  crops  grown  on  peat 
soils  are  also  subject  to  blight  and  rust,  which  cut  down  the 
general  yield.  While  it  is  possible  to  grow  good  grain  on  peat 
soils  properly  fertilized  with  phosphates  and  potash,  it  is  prac- 
ticable only  when  grain  is  desirable  in  a rotation. 

Dairying  Possible  on  an  All-Marsh  Farm.  On  most  of  the 
peat  soils  in  central  Wisconsin  dairy  farming  or  stock  raising 
will  prove  very  profitable.  This  is  particularly  true  on  the 
newly  drained  marshes  where  the  peat  soil  is  quite  raw.  These 
raw  peats,-  with  a little  care  and  effort,  will  make  good  pasture 
lands,  but  they  would  not  grow  truck  crops  until  more  decom- 
posed. The  droppings  of  the  cattle  start  bacterial  action,  which, 
together  with  the  firming  of  the  soil  by  tramping  of  stock,  has- 
tens the  decomposition  of  the  peat  and  helps  fit  it  for  other 
crops.  Farmers  in  central  Wisconsin  who  are  pasturing  stock 
during  the  summer  find  that  after  two  or  three  years,  the  tex- 
ture of  peat  soils  is  entirely  changed.  Legume  crops  such  as 
soybeans,  alfalfa,  and  red  clover,  all  high  in  protein,  have  not 
been  grown  very  extensively  on  central  Wisconsin  marshes,  but 
they  flourish  on  well-drained  areas.  When  these  crops  take 
the  place  of  wild  marsh  grasses,  timothy  and  bluegrass,  more 
livestock  can  be  fed  profitably.  Corn  for  seed  cannot  usually 
be  grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  because  of  the  early 
frosts,  but  good  corn  can  usually  be  grown  for  the  silo  and 
when  combined  with  soybeans  it  makes  excellent  silage.  With 
soybean-corn  silage  and  alfalfa  hay  to  feed,  very  little  con- 
centrated feeding  stuffs  will  have  to  be  purchased. 

Many  Marshes  Well  Adapted  to  Trucking.  Many  pieces  of 
marsh  land  are  admirably  adapted  to  truck  farming  or  the  grow- 
ing of  certain  special  crops.  This  is  particularly  true  of  muck 
soils.  Raw  peat  lands  do  not  furnish  sufficient  available  plant- 
food  elements  to  grow  these  intensive  crops,  but  when  the 


Farming  Marsh  Soils 


31 


peats  become  fairly  well-decomposed  or  are  fertilized  heavily 
they  will  produce  truck  crops.  However,  it  is  not  advisable 
to  recommend  the  growing  of  these  crops  extensively  on  marsh 
soils  in  Wisconsin,  unless  the  grower  is  thoroughly  familiar  with 
all  phases  of  growing  truck  crops. 

Much  Trucking  on  Marshes  Not  Necessary.  In  eight,  of  the 
north  central  states — Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Wis- 


FIG.  7.— FERTILIZERS  AID  THE  ONION  CROP 

Heavy  applications  of  the  right  fertilizers  must  be  used  for  truck  crops  to  obtain 
such  yields  t>s  this. 

consin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Missouri — there  are  15,000,000 
acres  of  swamp  land,  which  consist  largely  of  muck  soils  capa- 
ble of  being  drained  and  utilized  for  agricultural  purposes. 
In  the  entire  United  States  in  1909  there  were  125,000  acres 
of  cabbage,  50,000  acres  of  celery,  and  8,000  acres  of  pepper- 
mint and  spearmint,  making  a total  of  198,000  acres,  a large 
percentage  of  which  is  on  other  than  muck  soil.  That  the  pro- 
duction of  these  crops  is  sufficient  is  evidenced  by  the  frequent 
over-production  of  one  or  more  of  them.  It  seems  quite  possi- 


♦Farmers’  Bulletin  Nor  761,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  309 


ble  that  all  of  the  celery,  onions,  mint,  and  cabbage  needed  by 
the  whole  United  States  could  be  grown  on  1 or  2 per  cent  of 
the  marsh  land  in  these  eight  states. 

The  grower  of  intensive  crops  must  also  contend  with  an  ele- 
ment of  risk  as  well  as  uncertain  returns.  A study  of  truck 
markets  shows  a wide  variation  in  price  resulting  in  a fluctua- 
tion in  the  profit  from  an  acre. 

Truck  farming  also  means  the  employment  of  a large  amount 
of  labor  skilled  in  certain  lines  of  work.  This  labor  is  neces- 
sarily expensive  because  of  the  limited  time  it  is  used.  Where 
family  labor  is  used  to  assist  in  the  field  the  profits  will  be  much 
larger. 

The  location  of  land  and  market  facilities  are  important 
factors  in  truck  raising.  The  largest  truck  farms  are  near  large 
towns  or  good  shipping  points  with  facilities  for  immediate 
shipment  to  good  markets.  If  the  cost  of  hauling  to  town  or 
shipping  to  market  is  very  large,  it  reduces  the  profits  or  con- 
sumes them  entirely.  Such  crops  as  lettuce,  radishes,  or  bunch 
onions  must  be  placed  on  the  market  fresh  and  crisp. 

Some  Causes  of  Failure.  The  truck  farmer  must  also  have 
special  knowledge  as  to  the  best,  cheapest,  and  most  up-to-date 
method  of  growing  each  crop  on  the  particular  soil  on  which  he 
is  working.  Farmers  from  Illinois,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and 
other  states  have  come  to  central  Wisconsin  to  grow  truck  crops 
and  found  after  one  or  two  years’  experience  that  lack  of  pro- 
per drainage,  rawness  of  the  peat  soil,  soil  acidity,  or  a lack 
of  mineral  elements,  have  made  the  crops  failures.  The  farmer 
must  also  be  familiar  with  the  best  way  of  combating  insect 
pests  and  fungous  diseases,  which  are  serious  in  some  local- 
ities. 

Best  to  Combine  Dairying  and  Trucking.  Nearly  every  far- 
mer has  some  livestock,  and  many  livestock  farmers  grow  truck 
crops  as  a side  line.  This  combination  of  dairy,  truck,  and 
grain  farming  should  be  followed  extensively  on  Wisconsin 
muck  and  peat  farms.  The  amount  of  grain  grown  should  be 
limited  to  what  is  actually  used  on  the  farm.  The  profit  should 
come  through  the  stock  and  special  crops  which  may  be  sold. 
This  system  of  farming  has  two  advantages, — it  does  not  re- 
quire so  much  capital  as  strictly  dairy  farming,  and  it  gives 
a more  steady  income  because  of  the  variety  of  crops  grown. 


PEST  MENACES  IMPORTANT  INDUSTRY 

In  the  northeastern  counties  of  Wisconsin  pea  growers  are 
being  troubled  by  the  presence  and  activity  of  the  pea  moth, 
an  insect  which  feeds  within  the  pod  on  the  growing  peas. 
Investigators  tell  us  that,  so  far  as  is  known,  this  insect  feeds 
only  on  peas,  but  it  attacks  both  garden  and  field  varieties. 

We  are  told  that  during  ten  months  of  the  year  the  moths 
are  inactive,  living  in  cocoons  made  a short  distance  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil;  the  other  two  months  the  insects  are 
active,  feeding  and  growing.  Their  eggs  are  laid  on  or  near 
the  pea  vines  and  do  not  begin  to  hatch  until  after  the  middle 
of  July. 

Officials  of  our  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  advise  as 
the  best  means  of  controlling  the  pest  the  selection  of  the 
earliest  maturing  varieties  and  the  planting  of  the  crop  as 
early  as  possible  in  the  spring. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  Wisconsin  is  the  most  important 
pea-packing  state  in  the  Union,  it  is  highly  necessary  that 
everything  possible  be  done  to  limit  the  damage  and  spread 
of  this  insect.  The  officials  of  our  Experiment  Station  promise 
to  give  the  matter  continued  study  and  to  report  their  findings 
regularly  to  the  pea  growers  of  the  state. 

J.  A.  HAGEMANN,  Secretary, 
Wisconsin  Pea  Packers’  Association. 


The  Pea  Moth:  How  to  Control  It 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Jr. 

The  pea  moth,*  an  insect  which  in  the  worm  stage  feeds  within 
the  pod  on  ripening  peas,  threatens  the  pea  industry  of  Wisconsin. 
To  check  the  damage  and  spread  of  this  pest,  select  quickly 
maturing  varieties  and  plant  them  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
possible. 

In  pea-growing  sections  where  actual  counts  have  been  made 
as  many  as  half  the  pods  have  been  found  to  be  damaged.  This 
increased  destructiveness  of  the  pea  moth  is  largely  responsible 
for  the  decline  of  the  price  paid  to  farmers  for  dried  peas.  Many 
dealers  complain  of  the  excessive  number  of  injured  peas  in  the 
bin  and  buyers  are  refusing  to  purchase  such  stock  for  soups. 

At  present  the  pea  moth  is  found  only  in  the  northeastern 
counties  of  Wisconsin.  It  has  been  reported  from  Michigan  but 
is  not  known  to  occur  in  any  other  state.  It  has  been  one  of  the 
principal  pests  of  peas  in  Canada  since  1893,  having  been  intro- 
duced from  Europe  about  that  time.  When  it  first  came  into 
Wisconsin,  no  one  knows,  but  most  of  the  Door  County  farmers 
seem  to  agree  that  they  first  saw  the  insect  about  14  years  ago. 

The  accompanying  map  shows  the  actual  distribution  of  the 
pea  moth  in  Wisconsin  as  found  during  the  season  of  1919.  The 
light  shading  marks  the  area  in  which  reports  of  damage  to  the 
pea  crop  seem  to  indicate  the  presence  of  the  pea  moth.  The 
dark  shading  marks  the  area  in  which  the  pea  moth  was  actually 
found  and  the  percentage  of  infected  pods,  ranging  from  2 per 
cent  to  21  per  cent,  that  was  counted  in  the  fields.  In  1918  the 


* Laspeyresia  nigricana  Steph. —“The  specimen  of  pea  moth  referred 

to  us  with  slip  of  November  28  is  a male  and  I have  made  comparison  of 
the  genitalia  with  that  of  the  European  pea  moth,  Laspeyresia  nigricana 
Steph.  The  two  are  not  at  all  alike.  If  this  specimen  is  a genuine  pea 
moth  and  if  the  specimens  originally  referred  to  England  and  identified  then 
as  Laspeyresia  nigricana  are  the  same,  their  determination  was  incorrect. 
It  is  possible,  of  course,  that  we  may  have  both  a native  and  the  European 
species  infesting  peas  in  this  country.” 

Carl  Heinrich,  United  States  National  Museum. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  310 


infestation  was  much  heavier,  counts  showing  that  10  to  50  out 
of  every  100  pods  examined  were  attacked  by  the  worms. 

In  Door  county  the  greatest  damage  was  found  near  Sturgeon 
Bay,  becoming  lighter  both  north  and  south  of  the  town.  The 
least  infestation  was  found  in  Oconto  County.  Peas  from  Ash- 


F1G.  1.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  PEA  MOTH  IN  WISCONSIN 

Only  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state  is  infested  with  the  pea  moth,  but 
the  pest  may  spread  into  other  pea  growing  sections  unless  it  is  checked. 


land  and  Bayfield  Counties  were  examined  and  found  free  from 
damage. 


* The  writer  is  greatly  indebted  to  L.  G.  Gentner  of  the  Bureau  of 
Entomology,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  spending  two 
weeks  in  June,  1919,  in  beginning  the  work  and  for  taking  pictures  of  ma- 
terial sent  to  him  during  the  summer. 


The  Pea  Moth  : How  to  Control  It 


5 


It  Feeds  Only  on  Peas 

This  moth  is  known  to  attack  practically  all  varieties  of  both 
garden  and  field  peas.  No  other  host  other  than  peas  is  known. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  in  the  absence  of  this  plant,  their  natural 
food,  the  worms  might  feed  on  other  closely  related  plants. 

Late  varieties  of  peas  are  more  susceptible  to  attack  than  the 
* earlier  maturing  forms.  This  is  due  entirely  to  the  time  of  ap- 
pearance of  the  moth  itself  and  not  due  to  any  varietal  resistance 
of  the  peas. 

How  the  Insect  Looks  in 
Different  Stages 

Eggs.  The  eggs  are  small, 
not  quite  as  large  as  the  head 
of  an  ordinary  pin,  flat  and 
slightly  oval  in  shape,  whitish 
in  color,  and  nearly  trans- 
parent when  first  laid.  With- 
in two  days  two  reddish  trans- 
verse streaks  appear,  one  at 
each  end  of  the  developing 
embryo.  They  can  be  plainly 
seen  with  the  naked  eye.  After 
5 to  7 days,  depending  upon 
weather  conditions,  the  dark 
head  and  black  thoracic  shield 
are  formed  and  the  worms 

FIG.  2.  THE  EGGS  ARE  LAID  ON  .... 

leaves,  stems,  and  pods  within  the  eggs  are  then 

The  eggs  of  the  pea  moth  are  quite  nearly  ready  to  hatch, 
small,  but  they  may  easily  be  seen  with 

the  naked  eye.  In  the  photograph  the  Larvae.  When  first 
egg  is  enlarged  150  times.  . 

hatched,  the  larvae  are  pale, 
with  the  head  and  thoracic 
shield  almost  black.  The  full-grown  worms  are  about  y2  inch 
long,  yellowish  white  in  color,  and  with  the  spots  on  the  sides 
of  the  body  rather  inconspicuous.  The  head  and  thorax  are 
not  as  dark  as  when  the  larvae  are  young.  The  few  hairs  that 
appear  on  the  body  are  short,  and  pale  in  color. 

Pupae.  The  pupa  or  resting  stage  of  the  insect  appears 
never  to  have  been  described.  All  larvae  used  for  wintering 
during  1918-1919  died,  probably  from  lack  of  proper  protection. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  310 


Adults.  The  adults  of  this  insect  are  small  moths  about  5/16 
inch  long  and  a trifle  less  than  y2  inch  wide  when  the  wings  are 
spread.  The  moths  are  mouse-colored  with  but  few  conspicuous 
marks.  The  markings  most  easily  noticed  are  16  to  18  black 
and  white  oblique  dashes  along  the  fore  margin  of  the  front 
wings.  These  markings  are  rather  inconspicuous  toward  the 
base  of  the  wings  but  become  quite  distinct  toward  the  tip.  There 
is  also,  near  the  tip  of  each  fpre  wing,  a small  spot  not  so  easily  0 
noticed  which  has  the  same  kind  of  dashes,  but  these  are  longitud- 
inal and  not  transverse,  as  are  those  on  the  margin. 


FIG.  3.  READY  TO  GO  INTO  WINTER  QUARTERS 


The  larvae  of  the  pea  moth  grow  rapidly  and  are  soon  ready  to  leave  the 
pea  pods.  These  are  full  grown  larvae,  natural  size  (about  one-half  inch 
long). 

How  the  Pea  Moth  Lives 

The  pea  moth  spends  ten  months  of  the  year  in  its  winter 
cocoon,  the  other  two  months  it  spends  in  activity  near  or  on 
the  pea  plant.  Practically  the  whole  time  during  those  ten 
months  the  insect  is  in  the  larval  or  worm  stage  and  during  this 
time  neither  eats  nor  grows.  On  maturing  in  the  fall  the  worms 
leave  the  pea  pods  where  they  have  been  feeding,  make  their  way 
a short  distance  into  the  soil,  and  construct  a strong  cocoon 
composed  of  soil  particles,  webbing  and  gluing  them  together, 
and  then  lining  the  interior  with  fine  silky  threads.  Here  they 
remain  until  late  spring,  when  they  change  to  pupae,  later  coming 
out  as  adult  moths. 


The  Pea  Moth  : How  to  Control  It 


7 


The  moths  begin  to  appear  shortly  after  the  pea  vines  start  to 
bloom.  The  first  moth  to  be  captured  in  the  field  was  taken 
July  14,  the  largest  number  July  18,  and  the  last  one  July  30. 
The  chart  (page  11)  illus- 
trates the  rapidity  with 
which  the  moths  emerge. 

Between  4 and  8 o’clock 
any  quiet  evening  during 
the  moth  season,  the  adults 
could  be  seen  flying  about 
the  pea  vines.  The  great- 
est number  were  usually 
noticed  about  6 o’clock. 

Moths  were  very  seldom 
seen  after  sunset. 

Their  flight  is  of  a zigzag 
nature  but  rather  slow  unless  unusually  disturbed,  at  which 
time  they  soon  disappear  from  sight.  Soon  after  depositing 
the  last  egg,  the  female  moths  die. 


FIG.  4.  AN  ADULT  PEA  MOTH 

The  moths,  which  are  frail  and  small, 
fly  over  the  pea  fields  about  sundown 
and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  vines  or  on 
grass  or  weeds  close  to  the  vines.  The 
photograph  shows  the  moth  greatly  en- 
larged. 


FIG.  5.  THIS  IS  THE  WORK  OF 
THE  PEA  MOTH 


Peas  attacked  by  the  moth  are  unfit 
for  table  use,  ruined  for  seed  purposes, 
and  reduced  in  value  for  stock  feed. 


Usually  the  moths  lay  their 
eggs  singly  upon  the  pods 
(seldom  upon  very  young 
pods),  the  leaves,  the  stems 
of  the  pea  vines,  or  even  on 
the  stems  and  leaves  of  grasses 
or  weeds  growing  in  the  pea 
fields.  Only  in  a few  cases 
was  more  than  one  egg  laid  in 
a place.  The  first  eggs  were 
laid  July  17,  and  a maximum 
was  reached  within  2 or  3 
days.  Very  few  were  ovi- 
posited after  the  first  of  Aug- 
ust. The  period  between  the 
time  of  laying  and  hatching 
varied  from  7 to  10  days,  de- 
pending upon  the  warmth  or 
coolness  of  the  weather. 

The  first  egg  hatched  July 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  310 


23,  and  hatching  continued  until  August  13.  These  periods,  are 
illustrated  in  the  accompanying  chart. 

Upon  hatching,  the  young  larvae  seek  suitable  places  to  eat 
their  way  through  the  growing  or  ripened  pea  pod.  The  small 
larvae  make  a very  tiny  hole,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find 
the  entrance  holes  after  the  cast-aside,  chewed  particles  of  the 

pod,  called  frass,  are  rubbed 
off  or  blown  away.  The  young 
feed  upon  the  peas  within  and 
grow  rapidly,  some  complet- 
ing their  growth  in  16  days, 
others  requiring  26  days  for 
development.  Out  of  hun- 
dreds of  pods  examined  in  the 
field  there  were  only  a half 
dozen  cases  where  there  was 
more  than  one  larva  to  a pod 
and  in  those  instances  there 
were  only  two. 

From  one  to  all  the  peas  in 
the  pods  attacked  by  the 
larvae  were  injured.  When 
partly  grown  the  young 
worm  forms  a kind  of  cocoon 
within  the  pods  next  to  the 
peas,  the  peas  forming  one 
side  of  the  cocoon.  It  is  made 
up  of  the  accumulated  frass 
webbed  together.  The  larva 
then  continues  feeding,  mak- 
ing irregular  holes  and  often  devouring  as  much  as  half  of 
each  pea. 

Infested  pods  are  not  easily  detected.  The  only  sure  method 
of  determining  the  presence  of  the  worms  is  opening  the  pods. 
Infestation  seems  to  hasten  maturity  of  the  pods  and  sometimes 
causes  them  to  blanch  prematurely. 

As  soon  as  the  larvae  are  full  grown,  they  leave  the  pods 
through  small  round  holes  and  seek  suitable  wintering  quarters. 
If  the  peas  are  still  in  the  field,  the  larvae  enter  the  soil  a short 
distance  and  construct  their  cocoons,  thus  making  ready  for  the 


FIG.  6.  WINTER  COCOONS  ARE 
USUALLY  MADE  IN  THE  SOIL 

When  the  larvae  are  full  grown  they 
seek  shelter  by  burrowing  a few  inches 
in  the  soil  and  there  forming  cocoons 
in  which  they  spend  the  winter.  The 
photograph  shows  the  soil  cocoon  sev- 
eral times  its  natural  size. 


The  Pea  Moth  : How  to  Control  It 


9 


winter  season.  It  often  happens,  however,  that  the  peas  are 
harvested  and  placed  in  the  mow  ready  for  thrashing  before  the 
pea  moth  larvae  are  developed.  In  that  case  the  worms  on  emer- 
ging find  wintering  quarters  among  the  old  pea  vines,  or  in 
cracks,  crevices,  or  other  suitable  places  in  the  barn. 


FIG.  7.  PEAS  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  THRESHING 

Before  the  peas  are  threshed  the  webbing-  and  frass  mark  the  presence  of 
the  pea  moth.  After  threshing-  peas  which  have  been  injured  show  only 
where  the  larvae  have  been  feeding. 


Ways  to  Fight  the  Pea  Moth 

After  only  one  season’s  experiments  on  the  control  of  this 
pest,  it  is  impossible  to  state  definitely  the  best  method  to  follow. 
Enough  has  been  accomplished,  however,  to  give  a few  recom- 
mendations. The  various  methods  that  suggest  themselves  and 
the  value  of  each  are  taken  up  separately. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  310 


Trap  light  method  ineffective.  A trap  light,  fashioned  after 
the  Gillette  light  trap,  was  used  for  several  nights  during  the 
season  of  flight  of  the  moths.  Very  few  adults  of  the  pea  moth 
were  captured  while  other  species  of  moths  were  caught  in  abund- 
ance. From  this  evidence,  it 
seems  that  the  pea  moth  flies 
very  little  after  dark.  The 
benefit  derived  from  such  a 
method  would  scarcely  re- 
pay the  time  and  expense  of 
making  the  traps. 

Spraying  not  successful. 
The  present  cultural  meth- 
ods used  in  growing  peas 
and  the  nature  of  growth  of 
the  vines  practically  elim- 
inate any  possibility  of  con- 
trolling the  pea  moth  by  the 
use  of  poison  sprays.  Peas 
are  planted  broadcast  so 
that  the  entire  ground  is 
covered  with  the  vines. 
About  the  time  the  eggs  of 
the  pea  moth  begin  to  hatch 
and  when  sprays,  if  used, 
should  be  applied,  the  vines 
begin  to  fall  over  and  mat 
together,  which  makes  it  im- 
possible to  cover  all  sides  of 
the  pea  pods  with  a coating 
of  poison.  Another  objec- 

Ff6rmEdC™eSEnAthb  podsN  tion  is  that  the  P°ds  increase 
, , , . ^ ^ in  size  so  rapidly  that  sev- 

The  small  hole  in  the  pod  marks  the  1 J 

place  where  the  worm  emerged.  The  eral  closely  repeated  applica- 
worm  is  much  larger  than  the  hole  it  ^ 

makes  in  the  pod,  but  by  squeezing  its  tion&  would  be  necessary  in 
body  through  in  sections  it  emerges  ^ 

through  a hole  only  large  enough  for  order  to  keep  the  newly  de- 
the  head.  ^ J 

veloped  pods  well  coated 
with  spray.  The  use  of  sprayed  vines  as  a forage  crop  would 
also  be  a doubtful  practice.  All  of  these  facts  together  with 
the  damage  done  to  vines  in  driving  over  the  field  two  or  three 
times  very  nearly  eliminate  the  spray  program. 


The  Pea  Moth  : How  to  Control  It  . 


11 


Cultivate  thoroughly,  thresh  early,  bum  rubbish.  Pea 

moth  larvae  when  they  become  full  grown  go  a few  inches  into 
the  soil  where  they  spend  the  winter ; thus,  deep  fall  plowing 
will  bury  some  of  the  larvae  so  that  they  will  be  unable  to 
emerge  in  the  spring.  Thorough  disking  of  the  soil  after  the 
peas  are  harvested  will  probably  kill  some  of  the  overwintering 
forms.  But  even  these  practices  are  not  sufficient  as  many  of 


nuGus  / 


rst  moths'  seen  m the  field  were  noticed  July  /d 
largest  number  July/8,  and  the  last'.  one  July  88 


confined  in  captivity  /q/d  them  first  eggs  Jqfy  /7, 
their  greatest' /lumber  July  ft-20,  and  their  last  ones  July  3! 


yThe  first  eggs  hatched  July  23j/>e  /urges/  number  Ju/y/Z. 
and  the  last  ones  Ju/y  /J. 


The  tarvae  began  to  emerge 
July  3/f,  reached  them  max/ 
and'contmued'  to  emerge 
August  2S  \ 


FIG.  9.  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PEA  MOTH,  STURGEON  BAY,  1919 

The  solid  black  indicates  what  was  actually  observed  while  the  pea  moth 
was  in  captivity.  Tl^  studies  were  carried  on  in  an  outside  insectary  which 
was  as  near  field  conditions  as  possible.  The  dotted  lines  extending  from 
the  ends  of  the  solid  black  indicate  that  activity  of  the  insect  probably  cov- 
ered more  time  than  was  oberved  in  the  insectary. 


the  larvae  do  not  leave  the  pods  until  after  the  peas  are  re- 
moved from  the  field.  For  this  reason,  if  it  is  at  all  possible, 
peas  should  be  thrashed  within  a day  or  two  after  they  are 
harvested.  By  doing  this,  any  larvae  which  have  not  yet  left 
the  pea  pods  would  be  killed  when  passing  through  the  thrasher. 

It  the  straw  remaining  after  thrashing  is  not  to  be  used  for 
forage  or  other  purposes,  it  should  be  destroyed  by  burning. 
Any  of  the  vines  that  have  escaped  the  mower  and  remain  in 
the  field  should  be  raked  together  and  burned. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  310 


Select  early-lnaturing  varieties.  Careful  study  of  the  life 
history  chart  shows  that  the  eggs  of  the  pea  moth  did  not  begin 
to  hatch  in  1919,  until  after  the  middle  of  July.  If  varieties  are 
selected  that  will  mature  before  this  date  the  crop  will  escape 
the  ravages  of  the  pea  moth.  The  best  recommendations  to  be 
given  at  this  time  are: 

1.  Select  the  best  early  maturing  varieties. 

2.  Plant  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible. 


Published  and  distributed  under  Act  of  Congress,  May  8,  1914,  by  the 
Agricultural  Extension  Service  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  K.  L.  Hatch;  assistant  director,  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  cooperating. 


I 


^^UNIVERSITY  OF  1LLINOIS-URBANA 

630.7W75B  c001 

BULLETIN.  MADISON 
291-310  1918-20 


3 0112  019929477 


